Coal  Catechism 


BY 
WILLIAM  JASPER  NICOLLS 

M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E. 
Author  of"  The  Story  of  American  Coals"  etc. 


PHILADELPHIA 

GEORGE  W.  JACOBS  &  CO. 

PUBLISHERS 


COPYRIGHT,  1898, 
BY  WILLIAM  JASPER  NICOLLS 

COPYRIGHT,    1906, 

BY  GEORGE  W.  JACOBS  &  COMPANY 

Published,  April,  1906. 

Fifth  Edition 


"  //  was  only  the  other  day,  so  to  speak,  that 
Nature  turned  a  creature  out  of  her  workshop, 
who  by  degrees  acquired  sufficient  wits  to  make 
a  Jire,  and  then  to  discover  that  the  black  rock 
would  burn" — PROFESSOR  HUXLEY 


241161 


PREFACE 

CATECHISM  of  Coal  is  intended  for  that 
great  number  of  intelligent  readers  who  have 
no  technical  training,  and  yet  who  prefer  to 
seek  knowledge  by  reading  special  subjects 
rather  than  fiction.  A  large  proportion  of 
these  have  neither  the  time  nor  the  inclination 
to  peruse  the  voluminous  geological  and 
statistical  reports  of  the  coal  industry  in  the 
United  States,  or  to  study  the  ponderous 
volumes  of  gathered  wisdom  by  technical 
experts.  Their  time  is  usually  fully  occu- 
pied with  the  cares  of  business  and  often 
with  the  fatigue  of  manual  labor,  and  their 
hours  for  quiet  reading  or  study  are  few  and 
most  precious.  For  these,  the  following 
plain  questions  and  direct  authoritative  an- 
swers have  been  designed  with  a  realizing 
sense  of  the  readers'  wants  and  aspirations. 
The  task  conscientiously  assumed  by  the 
writer  has  been  to  verify  all  the  answers  by 
referring  to  competent  authorities.  The 
great  number  of  these  consulted  renders  it 


Preface 

impossible  to  credit  each  one,  as  the  result 
would  be  confusing  and,  in  fact,  impractica- 
ble, since  the  consensus  of  opinions  is  given 
and  rarely  that  of  an  individual.  It  is  as- 
sumed that  the  reader  knows  theoretically 
nothing  about  Coal,  and  the  questions  are  so 
arranged  as  to  lead  him  gradually  through 
the  various  stages  of  its  origin,  development, 
and  uses  until  a  full  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject has  been  obtained.  In  justification  of 
the  catechetical  form  used  the  writer  refers 
to  the  old  educational  catechisms  used  by 
our  forefather's  in  many  of  the  best  universi- 
ties of  Europe.  No  better  manner  has  since 
been  devised  for  imparting  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  a  subject,  especially  to  those 
young  students  in  our  schools  and  colleges 
who  desire  special  instruction,  or  to  those 
who,  from  want  of  opportunity  or  otherwise, 
have  not  received  the  necessary  training  for 
systematic  study  or  reading. 

The  writer  needs  no  apology  for  his  sub- 
ject ;  its  importance  can  scarcely  be  over- 
estimated. Coal  is  the  basis  of  all  energy 
and  power,  the  prime  mover  of  the  wheels  of 
industry.  "With  Coal,  we  have  light,  strength, 
6 


Preface 

power,  wealth,  and  civilization ;  without 
Coal,  we^have  darkness,  weakness,  poverty, 
and  barbarism.  The  most  civilized  nations 
of  the  world  are  those  consuming  the  most 
Coal.  At  the  head  of  these  stands  the 
United  States. 

W.  J.  N. 
PHILADELPHIA,  1906. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  ONE 
ORIGIN     ...................   13 

CHAPTER  TWO 
GEOLOGY  ...................   26 

CHAPTER  THREE 
HISTORY  ...................   3s 

CHAPTER  FOUR 
GEOGRAPHY    ........  .  .........    50 

CHAPTER  FIVE 
PRODUCTION   ................   60 

CHAPTER  SIX 
CLASSIFICATION    ...............  71 


CHAPTER  SEVEN 
PROSPECTING 


Contents 


CHAPTER  EIGHT 
DEVELOPMENT 94 

CHAPTER  NINE 
OPERATING     104 

CHAPTER  TEN 
HAULAGE 118 

CHAPTER  ELEVEN 
PREPARATION 129 

CHAPTER  TWELVE 
WATER  TRANSPORTATION 140 

CHAPTER  THIRTEEN 
ANTHRACITE  RAIL  SHIPMENTS 149 

CHAPTER  FOURTEEN 
BITUMINOUS  RAIL  SHIPMENTS 161 

CHAPTER  FIFTEEN 
HEAT 173 

CHAPTER  SIXTEEN 

POWER 185 

10 


Contents 


CHAPTER  SEVENTEEN 
METALLURGICAL 195 

CHAPTER  EIGHTEEN 
GAS 204 

CHAPTER  NINETEEN 
COKE 214 

CHAPTER  TWENTY 
BY-PRODUCTS        228 


11 


COAL  CATECHISM 


CHAPTER  ONE 

ORIGIN 

1.  What  is  coal  ? 

Fossil  fuel ;  a  black,  earthy  substance 
which  is  dug  from  the  ground,  and  which 
can  be  burned  for  fuel. 

2.  Of  what  does  coal  consist  ? 
Chemically,  it  consists  of  carbon,  volatile 

matter,    sulphur,    and    ash,    with    a   small 
amount  of  water. 

8.    What  is  carbon  ? 

Carbon  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  the 
elements.  A  diamond  is  pure  carbon,  and  a 
piece  of  charcoal  is  carbon  united  with  a 
small  portion  of  oxygen. 

4.    What  is  meant  "by  u  volatile  matter  "  ? 
The  volatile  matter  consists  of  the  gases, 
— viz.,    hydrogen,    nitrogen,    and    oxygen. 


Coal  Catechism 


The  combustion  of  these  gases  is  seen  in  the 
flame  when  the  coal  is  burning. 

5.  What  is  sulphur  ? 

One  of  the  simple  elements.  It  unites  with 
many  of  the  metals.  It  is  almost  always  to 
be  found  in  coal  in  the  form  of  iron  pyrites, 
a  brassylike  substance  occurring  in  layers 
from,  the  thickness  of  paper  to  half  an  inch. 

6.  What  constitutes  ash  ? 

Ash  is  the  inorganic  matter  of  coal ;  the 
part  that  is  not  consumed  in  combustion. 
It  is  the  earthy  matter  in  the  drift  of  the  coal 
period. 

7.  What  was  the  coal  period  ? 

The  period  of  time  commonly  known  as 
the  Carboniferous  age,  during  which  coal  was 
formed. 

8.  When  is  this  supposed  to  have  been? 
Thousands  of  years  ago.     Ages  before  man 

was  created. 

9.  What  is  known  of  the  Carboniferous  age  ? 
That  it  was  remarkable  for  the  luxuriant 

growth  of  vegetation  of  the  fern  variety  and 
14 


Coal  Catechism 


such,  plants  as  grow  in  water  and  swampy 
places.  It  is  supposed  that  this  mass  of 
matted  vegetation  died  down  each  year  and 
formed  into  a  peaty-like  mass,  which  after- 
ward became  coal. 

10.  Coal,  then,  was  formed  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground;  how  has  it  since  been  buried  ? 

These  great  beds  of  decayed  and  rotting 
vegetation  became  submerged  by  geological 
changes  of  the  earth's  surface,  so  that  the 
water  overflowed  them,  carrying  large  quan- 
tities of  sediment,  which  covered  them  over 
or  buried  them. 

11.  How  do  we  account  for  several  seams  of 
coal,  one  over  the  other  ? 

We  suppose  that  vegetation  again  grew 
and  flourished  on  the  surface  of  the  sedi- 
mentary deposit,  as  weeds  quickly  cover 
newly  upturned  soil,  and  that  the  process 
was  then  repeated. 

12.  If  coal    was  formed   in  low    swampy 
places,  why  do  we  find  it  near  the  tops  of  moun- 
tains ? 

We  have  evidences  that  after  the  coal  seams 
15 


Coal  Catechism 


were  formed  the  crust  of  the  earth  became 
disturbed  by  cooling,  or  probably  by  volcanic 
upheavals,  which  disturbed  the  continuity 
of  the  strata  containing  the  coal  seams,  so 
that  the  low,  flat  ground  was  elevated  and 
formed  hills  and  mountains. 

13.  Was  coal  formed  only  in  the  Carbonif- 
erous age  ? 

Coal  was  formed  in  all  ages,  but  we  do  not 
know  that  any  other  age  presented  so  lux- 
uriant a  growth  of  vegetation  and  under 
similar  conditions. 

14-  What  proof  is  there  that  coal  was 
formed  prior  to  the  Carboniferous  age  ? 

In  America  we  find  graphite  in  geological 
strata  as  old  as  the  globe  itself,  or  what  we 
know  of  it. 

15.  What  is  graphite  t 

In  a  black-lead  pencil,  the  substance  which 
is  commonly  called  lead  is  graphite,  and  be- 
longs to  the  carbon  family.  It  comes  next  to 
Anthracite  coal. 

16.  Of  what  does  the  carbon  family  consist  ? 
Beginning  with  the  diamond,  which  is  es- 

16 


Coal  Catechism 


sentially  pure  carbon,  we  have  next  the 
graphite  or  plumbago  used  for  stove  polish, 
then  Anthracite  coal,  Bituminous  coal,  lig- 
nite, and  finally  turf  or  peat,  which  is  the 
youngest  of  the  family. 

17.  If,  then,  we  find  graphite  in  the  older 
formations,  is  that  proof  that  coal  also  existed  ? 

Most  geologists  admit  that  graphite  repre- 
sents the  carbon  which  formed  part  of  the 
woody  tissue  of  plants  that  lived  during  those 
remote  times,  so  that  this  mineral  represents 
coal  in  the  ultimate  stages  of  carbonization. 

18.  Have  we  any  other  proof  than  the  opin- 
ions of  geologists  f 

Coal  has  been  found  converted  into 
graphite,  in  the  ground,  by  the  intrusion  of 
volcanic  rock,  which  hastened  the  work  of 
carbonization. 

19.  Where  are  some  good  examples  of  this 
in  the  United  States? 

In  the  Anthracite  coal  mines  of  Ehode 
Island  the  outcrops  frequently  yield  plum-> 
bago,  and  occasionally  nests  of  almost  pure 
17 


Coal  Catechism 


graphite  are  found  in  the  coal  beds,  which  is 
sold  as  black-lead. 

20.  What  other  examples  exist  of  pre-  Car- 
boniferous coal  ? 

In  Scotland,  where  coal  occurs  in  the  old 
red  sandstone  formation. 

21.  How  do  we  know  that  coal  was  formed 
since  the  Carboniferous  age  ? 

Coal  of  post-Carboniferous  age  is  found  in 
Bavaria  and  in  Germany,  as  also  in  the  north- 
ern Tyrol  and  in  Belgium  and  Austria. 

22.  Give   an  example  of  more  recent  for- 
mations ? 

Coal  has  been  found  of  Miocene  age  in  the 
Arctic  regions  of  Greenland  within  a  few  de- 
grees of  the  North  Pole. 

23.  Is  coal  forming  at  the  present  time  ? 

As  the  formation  of  coal  has  been  going  on 
in  all  ages,  ever  since  vegetable  life  appeared, 
it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  in  the  peat 
bogs,  delta  jungles,  and  mangrove  swamps  of 
the  present  time  the  formation  of  coal  fof 
use  in  future  ages  may  now  be  going  on. 
18 


Coal  Catechism 


24.  Give  an  example  of  probable  coal  for- 
mation now  going  on  ? 

In  the  United  States,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  Biver,  we  have  the  conditions 
required  for  future  coal  fields, — swamps,  peri- 
odical inundations  of  water,  rapid  growth  of 
weeds  and  vegetation,  which  perishes  and  is 
decomposed  every  winter. 

25.  Is  coal  a  vegetable  or  mineral  substance  ? 

As  before  demonstrated,  coal  is  of  vege- 
table origin,  which  became  mineralized  on 
the  spot  where  it  grew,  and  is  now  found 
after  countless  years  of  time. 

26.  Why  do  we  suppose  that  vegetation  must 
have  been  more  profuse  in  the  Carboniferous 
age  than  now  ? 

It  has  been  demonstrated  by  figures  that  all 
the  carbon  contained  in  all  our  immense  for- 
ests would  scarcely  furnish  a  very  thin  seam 
of  coal. 

27.  Did  it  require  all  the  forests  of  the  Car- 
boniferous age  to  form  coal  ? 

It  appears  not,  as  parts  of  a  true  forest, 
petrified  in  place,  have  been  found  in  the 
19 


Coal  Catechism 


middle  of  the  coal  itself,  as  well  as  of  the 
sandstone  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

28.  W  here  Juts  this  occurred  f 

An  example  of  this  was  observed  in  the 
mines  of  Treuil,  at  Saint  fetienne,  in  France, 
where  a  standing  tree  was  found  in  the  posi- 
tion described. 

29.  What  does  this  prove  ? 

That  the  coal  had  been  formed  at  the  foot 
of  this  tree  in  the  same  way  as  peat,  and  was 
subsequently  covered  up,  compressed,  heated, 
distilled,  and  mineralized  into  fossil  carbon, 
or  coal,  from  other  vegetation  than  the  trees 
of  the  forests, — vegetation  of  rank  and  luxu- 
riant growth. 

50.  Was  the  Carboniferous  or  coal  period  of 
long  duration  f 

Under  such  favorable  conditions  it  seems 
probable  that  the  Carboniferous  age  need  not 
have  been  of  long  duration.  At  that  time 
the  common  horsetails  and  club-mosses  of  the 
present  day  grew  as  large  as  our  trees. 

51.  How  do  we  know  that  f 

By  the  impressions  of  the  plants  and  flora 
20 


Coal  Catechism 


which  are  found  in  the  rock  strata.  These 
impressions  were  originally  made  in  the  soft 
sandy  material,  which  afterward  hardened. 

32.    What  are  these  impressions  called  f 
They  are  called  fossiliferous  flora  and  or- 
ganic remains. 

S3.  Are  these  fossiliferous  flora  found  in  the 
coal? 

Occasionally  small  portions  of  leaves, 
stems  and  the  structures  of  woody  fibre  are 
found  in  the  coal  itself,  and  the  microscope 
reveals  the  presence  of  organic  remains. 

84.  Are  these  sufficiently  numerous  to  prove 
that  coal  is  of  vegetable  origin  ? 

In  the  coal  itself  we  find  little  proof  of  its 
origin,  owing  to  the  chemical  and  mechanical 
changes  which  have  occurred  in  the  original 
deposit. 

35.  Where  do  we  get  the  evidence— from  or- 
ganic remains  ? 

In  the  interstratified  clays,  shales  and  other 
deposits  we  find  plant  remains  in  every  state 
of  preservation, — from  delicate  ferns  to  the 
21 


Coal  Catechism 


trunks  of  trees.     These  prove  the  vegetable 
origin  of  coal. 

36.  Are  these  fossil  remains  purifications  or 
casts  and  moulds  of  the  original  flora  ? 

The  impressions  of  vegetation  occur  in  four 
different  conditions.  Some  consist  of  vege- 
tables converted  into  carbonaceous  clay,  and 
still  invested  with  their  bark  reduced  to  char- 
coal. Others  exhibit  impressions  of  the  same 
plant  with  the  surface  entire  upon  clay,  slate, 
or  sandstone.  Others  are  decorticated  (barked 
or  husked)  vegetables  themselves,  and  lastly, 
others  are  impressions  of  these  decorticated 
plants. 

37.  Name  some  of  the  fossiliferous  flora  ? 

Among  the  most  common  varieties  of  vege- 
table remains  are  the  following :  Sphenop- 
teris, sigillaria,  lepidodendron,  neuropteris, 
asterophyllites,  and  calamites. 

88.    Describe  the  sphenopteris  1 

The  sphenopteris  is  similar  in  appearance 
to  a  fern,  with  branching,  beautifully  formed 
leaves,  their  veins  radiating  from  the  base  of 
the  stem. 

22 


Coal  Catechism 


39.  Is  the  sigillaria  an  important  species  of 
Carboniferous  flora  ? 

Probably  more  so  than  any  other  ;  a  great 
deal  of  the  coal  seems  to  have  been  formed  of 
this  tree,  which  measured  from  3  to  5  feet  in 
diameter.  The  impressions  of  the  sigillaria 
are  beautifully  symmetrical,  as  though  made 
by  a  seal  in  soft  wax. 

40.  What  is  remarkable  in  the  lepidoden- 
dron  ? 

The  trees  of  the  lepidodendron  are  known 
to  have  attained  a  growth  of  from  40  to  50 
feet,  which  is  remarkable  when  we  consider 
that  they  belong  to  the  variety  now  called 
club-mosses,  the  largest  -  tropical  variety  of 
which  does  not  now  attain  a  height  of  more 
than  3  feet. 

41.  Describe  the  neuropteris  ? 

The  neuropteris  is  of  the  fern  variety,  and 
has  a  broad  leaf  somewhat  like  a  heart  in 
shape. 

42.  WJiat  is  peculiar  of  the  asterophyllites  ? 
The  asterophyllites  are  characterized  by 

the  graceful  arrangement  of  the  leaflets  in 
23 


Coal  Catechism 


the  forms  of  stars,  radiating  from  a  central 
stem. 

43.  To  what  plant  has  the  catamites  been 
corn-pared  ? 

To  the  bamboo  and  equiesta,  or  common 
"  horsetails."  They  seem  to  have  grown  in 
dense  jungles  or  brakes. 

44-  What  remarkable  circumstance  is  mani- 
fested in  coal  vegetation  ? 

Its  uniform  appearance  over  the  greater 
portion  of  the  globe.  The  plants  of  the  coal 
age  are  alike  in  Europe,  America,  Australia, 
and  regions  approaching  the  North  Pole. 

45.  What  do  we  argue  from  this  circum- 
stance ? 

That  the  climate  of  the  globe  must  have 
been  nearly  the  same  in  these  far  distant 
points  at  that  period  of  the  world's  history. 

46.  What  kind  of  a  climate  must  it  have 
been? 

It  must  have  been  a  warm  climate  with  an 
abundance  of  moisture  or  humidity.     It  is 
also  probable  that  the  percentage  of  carbonic 
24 


Coal  Catechism 


acid  in  the  atmosphere  was  much  larger  than 
now  in  order  to  account  for  the  inordinately 
luxuriant  growth  of  the  plants  which  make 
up  the  fossil  fuel.  This  climate  would  not 
have  supported  human  life. 


26 


CHAPTEE  TWO 

GEOLOGY 

47.  What  is  geology  ? 

Geology  is  an  inquiry  into  the  history  and 
development  of  the  earth's  crust  and  of  the 
several  floras  and  faunas  which  have  dotted 
and  peopled  its  surface. 

48.  What  are  geological  systems  f 

They  are  the  different  periods  in  the  world's 
history  which  are  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  rock  strata  containing  similar  fossils 
or  organic  remains. 

49.  What  is  the  oldest  system  ? 
The  Archaean. 

50.  How  many  systems  are  there  ? 

Fifteen  in  all,  as  follows  :  Archaean,  Cam- 
brian, Silurian,  Devonian,  Carboniferous, 
Perinean,  Triassic,  Jurassic,  Cretaceous, 
Eocene,  Oligocene,  Miocene,  Pliocene,  Pleis- 
tocene and  Eecent. 


Coal  Catechism 


51.  In  what  system  do  we  find  the  coal  and 
coal  fossils? 

In  the  Carboniferous  principally,  but  they 
have  also  been  found  in  several  of  the  others. 

62.  Do  we  find  any  proof  of  human  life  in 
the  fossils  of  the  Carboniferous  system  ? 

None  whatever  ;  all  scientists  agree  that  no 
human  being  existed  in  that  period  of  the 
world's  history. 

53.  Have  we  evidence  of  any  living  things  f 
The  coal  measures  contain  fossils  and  casts 

or  impressions  of  centipedes,  spiders,  lizards, 
scorpions,  crabs,  and  lobsters,  also  an  insect 
resembling  a  cockroach.-  Many  remains  have 
been  found  of  the  mollusca,  or  shell-bearing 
animals,  and  also  of  fishes,— many  of  great 
size.  The  air  at  that  period  was  probably 
full  of  innumerable  millions  of  infusoria  in- 
festing the  swampy  land. 

54.  How  were   the   coal  basins  formed  in 
America  ? 

It  is  supposed  that  at  one  time  vast  seas 
swept  over  the  land,  excepting  the  elevated 

27      - 


Coal  Catechism 


mountainous  districts,  which  contained  active 
volcanoes.  The  action  of  the  waters  rounded 
the  fragments  of  volcanic  rock  and  washed 
them  into  great  basins  of  conglomerate  rock 
and  sandstone. 

55.  How  were  these  basins  filled  with  coal  ? 
Upon  these  beds  or  basins  was  accumulated 

the  vegetable  matter  which,  rotting  and  set- 
tling for  ages,  became  coal. 

56.  In  what  part  of  the  world  are  these  coal 
basins  found? 

Principally  in  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  France,  Austria,  Belgium, 
Eussia,  Canada,  Japan,  Spain,  New  Zealand, 
Sweden,  and  Italy. 

57.  Which  of  the  foregoing  countries  contains 
the  largest  coal  basins  f 

The  United  States  and  Great  Britain  con- 
tain, in  area,  more  than  all  the  others  com- 
bined. 

58.  How  many  principal  coal  basins  are  in 
the  United  States? 

There  are  six  distinct  basins. 

28 


Coal  Catechism 


59.  Locate  the  largest  basin  ? 

It  extends  west  from  the  Allegheny  Moun- 
tains to  the  Missouri  River,  a  distance  of 
about  1,500  miles,  and  south  from  the  lakes 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  Eiver,  about  600 
miles. 

60.  How  does  this  coal  basin  compare  with 
those  in  Europe  f 

It  is  larger  than  any  other  known  basin  in 
the  world.  It  would  cover  half  of  Europe, 
having  an  area  of  900,000  square  miles. 

61.  In  how  many  States  of  the  Union  is  coal 
found ? 

Twenty-eight  States  are  now  included  in 
the  coal  producers. 

62.  Name  them  ? 

The  coal-producing  States  include  Ala- 
bama, Arkansas,  California,  Colorado, 
Georgia,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Indian  Territory, 
Iowa,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Maryland,  Michi- 
gan, Missouri,  Montana,  New  Mexico,  North 
Carolina,  North  Dakota, 'Ohio,  Oregon,  Penn- 
sylvania, Tennessee,  Texas,  Utah,  Virginia, 
Washington,  West  Virginia  and  Wyoming. 
29 


Coal  Catechism 


63.  Were  the  coal  basins  once  filled  with 
water  ? 

We  suppose  these  great  basins  to  have 
been,  at  one  time,  the  beds  of  vast  inland 
lakes  or  seas. 

64'  What  proof  have  we  that  such  was  once 
the  case? 

Geologists  trace  the  movements  of  vast 
bodies  of  water  from  the  interior  to  the 
oceans.  They  point  to  the  gaps  and  breaks 
in  the  great  mountain  ranges,  traversing 
America  from  northeast  to  southwest,  as  the 
probable  points  through  which  these  lakes 
burst  and  were  emptied  into  the  sea. 

65.  What  familiar  example  have  we  in  evi- 
dence of  these  movements  ? 

The  Delaware  Water  Gap,  as  viewed  from 
the  summit  of  Mount  Pocouo.  Here  the 
mountains  resemble  the  breast  of  a  great  dam, 
and  the  Gap  shows  the  break  through  which 
the  pent-up  waters  rushed  forth  to  the  sea. 

66.  Is  it  possible  that  any  of  our  present  lakes 
might  burst  their  barriers  ? 

It  has  been  suggested  that  Lake  Erie  might 
30 


Coal  Catechism 


eventually  be  drained  by  the  retrograde 
movement  of  Niagara  Falls,  which  is  gradu- 
ally wearing  away  the  restraining  rock  that 
holds  back  the  lake. 

67.  What  progress  has  already  been  made  ? 
Niagara  Falls  has  already  receded  some 

7  or  8  miles. 

68.  At  this  rate  how  long  would  it  take  to 
reach  the  lake  ? 

The  rate  of  progress  has  been  calculated  at 
about  one  foot  in  a  year.  This  rate  being 
continued,  it  would  take  about  132,000  years, 
the  distance  being  something  less  than  25 
miles.  :j 

69.  Into  how  many  periods  are  the  geological 
systems  divided  f 

Into  four  periods, — viz.,  Eozoic,  Palaeozoic, 
Mesozoic  and  Neozoic. 

70.  In  which  period  is  the  Carboniferous  or 
coal  system  f 

It  is  in  the  second  or  Palaeozoic  period  of 
time. 

31 


Coal  Catechism 


71.  How  is  coal  usually  found  ? 

Coal  is  found  in  beds  or  seams,  ranging  in 
thickness  from  an  inch  to  30  feet,  and  cov- 
ering wide  tracts  of  land. 

72.  What  are  the  coal  "measures"  ? 
Under  that  name  are  included  all  the  vari- 

ous strata  of  rock  occurring  during  the  period 
of  the  coal  formation. 

73.  How  are  the  coal-beds  separated  ? 
They  are  separated  from  each  other  by 

beds  of  sandstone  and  compressed  clay  or 
shale. 


these  coal-beds  always  continuous  ? 
Very  often  the  coal  occurs  in  groups  of  sev- 
eral beds  separated  from  each  other  by  strata 
known  as  "  barren  measures"    of  consider- 
able thickness. 

75.  What  is  the"  under  clay  >  >  ? 

The  underclay  is  the  bed  below  the  coal 
seam.  It  is  a  sort  of  fossil  soil,  filled  with 
roots  and  rootlets,  on  which  rests  the  coal. 

76.  What  is  the  physical  structure  of  coal  ? 
Coal  consists  of  successive  thin  layers  of 

32 


Coal  Catechism 


hard  coal,  sometimes  bright  and  then  dull, 
interspersed  at  irregular  intervals  with  a 
dusty,  fibrous  substance,  like  charcoal,  known 
as  ' l  mother  coal. ' '  These  alternate  with  thin 
partings  or  layers  of  dark  shale  or  slate, 
upon  which  are  usually  present  marks  and 
impressions  of  the  stems  and  leaves  of 
plants. 

77.    Of  what  does  the  <  <  roof  >  >  consist  ? 

Above  the  coal  is  its  roof  of  hardened 
clay  or  sandstone,  and  this  generally  con- 
tains many  remains  of  plants  and  trees,  also 
fossil  stumps  of  trees. 

18.    What  are  these  fossil  stumps  called  ? 

In  some  places  they  are  known  to  the  coal 
miners  as  "  coal  -pipes,"  and  are  dreaded  by 
them  in  consequence  of  the  accidents  which 
occur  from  their  suddenly  falling  after  the 
coal  which  supported  them  has  been  re- 
moved. 

79.  What  remarkable  event  in  the  worWs 
history  occurred  in  the  Carboniferous  period  ? 

The  introduction  into  our  world  of  the 
earliest  known  vertebrate  animals,  which 
33 


Coal  Catechism 


could    open     their    nostrils    and    literally 
"  breathe  the  breath  of  life." 

80.   How  had  all  previous  animals  lived  ? 

All  previous  animals,  except  a  few  insects, 
had  respired  in  the  water  by  means  of  gills 
or  similar  apparatus. 


34 


CHAPTEE  THREE 

HISTORY 

81.  What  is  history  f 

History  is  a  continuous  narrative  of  events  ; 
a  chronicle  or  register  of  happenings  in  the 
order  of  time  ;  a  record. 

82.  When  does  the  history  of  coal  begin  ? 
The  history  of  coal  begins  properly  with 

the  first  mention  which  we  can  find  of  it  in 
written  or  printed  narrative. 

88.  What  is  the  earliest  mention  made  of 
coal  ? 

The  first  mention  made  of  coal  is  contained 
in  the  Bible,  Prov.  26  :  21, —  "  As  coals  are 
to  burning  coals  and  wood  to  fire,  so  is  a  con- 
tentious man  to  kindle  strife." 

84..    When  and  by  whom  was  this  written  f 
It  was  written  by  King  Solomon  about  the 

year  1016  B.  c.,  and  is  supposed  by  many 

authorities  to  refer  to  charcoal. 


Coal  Catechism 


85.  Was  not  Solomon  familiar  with  coal  f 
King  Solomon's  empire  contained  Syria, 

which  abounds  in  coal,  fossils,  and  Bitumi- 
nous pits,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
the  coal  which  is  now  found  in  the  rocks 
about  Herinon  and  Lebanon  was  not  unknown 
to  the  Jewish  king. 

86.  What  is  bitumen  f 

Generally  speaking,  bitumen  is  a  mineral 
oil  combined  with  other  various  substances. 

87.  What  are  some  of  the  properties  of  bi- 
tumen ? 

Among  the  properties  of  bitumen  we  have 
naphtha,  petroleum,  mineral  tar,  and  asphalt. 
Coal  is  also  supposed  to  contain  some  bitu- 
men. 

88.  Where  is  the  next  mention  of  coal  in  the 
Bible? 

The  next  is  contained  in  Isaiah  47  : 14, — 
"  There  shall  not  be  coal  to  warm  at." 

89.  When  was  this  written  f 

This  was  written  about  750  B.  c.  and  prob- 
ably 100  years  before  the  next  biblical  men- 
36 


Coal  Catechism 


tion  of  coal,  which  occurs  in  Lamentations 
4:8, — "  Their  visage  is  blacker  than  a  coal." 

90.  Have  we  any  mention  of  coal  in  ancient 
times  besides  those  made  in  the  Bible  ? 

A  description  of  coal  occurs  in  the  writings 
of  Theophrastus. 

91.  Who  was  Theophrastus  ? 
Theophrastus  was  a  Greek  orator  and  phi- 
losopher, and  a  friend  of  Aristotle. 

92.  How  did  he  describe  coal  ? 

He  wrote:  "  Those  substances  that  are 
called  coals  and  are  broken  for  use  are 
earthy,  but  they  kindle  and  burn  like 
wooden  coals." 

93.  Where  did  he  say  they  were  to  be  found  ? 
He  described  them  as  occurring  in  "Ly- 

guria,  and  in  Elis,   over  in  the  mountains 
toward  Olympias." 

94-   How  long  ago  was  this  written  ? 

About  2,200  years  ago,  or  over  300  years 
before  Christ.     This  is  the  first  mention  of 
coal  made  by  other  than  sacred  writers. 
37 


Coal  Catechism 


95.  Have  we  any  mention  of  coal  in  the  New 
Testament  f 

The  word  "coals"  is  used  by  John  the 
Apostle  in  his  Gospel,  18th  chapter  and  18th 
verse, — "  And  the  servants  and  officers  stood 
there,  who  had  made  a  fire  of  coals,  for  it  was 
cold." 

96.  When  was  this  written  ? 
Probably  about  the  year  60  A.  D. 

97.  Save  we  any  present  evidences  of  coal 
being  used  in  ancient  times  ? 

On  several  occasions  tools  and  cinders  have 
been  found  in  England  near  the  ancient 
Eoman  wall,  which  seem  to  prove  that  the 
Britons  used  coal  prior  to  54  B.  c.,  or  the 
time  of  the  Eoman  invasion. 

98.  What  is  the  first  actual  record  of  the  use 
of  coal  in  England  ? 

The  first  record  is  in  the  form  of  a  receipt, 
which  was  given  by  the  Abbey  of  Petersboro 
in  852  A.  D.  for  "  twelve  cartloads  of  coal." 
The  first  record  of  actual  mining  operations 
is  contained  in  the  books  of  the  Bishop  of 
Durham  in  the  year  1180. 
38 


Coal  Catechism 


99.  Did  the  use  of  coal  then  become  general  f 
The  use  of  coal  must  have  been  very  grad- 
ual, for  more  than  a  hundred  years  later  a 
Venetian  traveler  wrote  to  his  countrymen 
about  "  a  kind  of  black  stone  used  like  fire- 
wood," and  they  did  not  believe  him. 

100.  When  was  the  first  shipment  of  coal 
made  to  London  ? 

In  the  year  1240,  but  it  was  not  until  nearly 
400  years  later  that  the  discovery  was  made 
that  coal  could  be  used  in  a  blast-furnace  for 
smelting  iron  ore. 

101.  When    was    coal  first    discovered    in 
America  ? 

The  first  discovery  of  coal  in  America  was 
made  in  1679  by  Father  Hennepin,  a  French 
Jesuit  missionary.  In  his  journal  he  notes 
the  traces  of  Bituminous  coal  above  Fort 
Crecolier,  on  the  Illinois  Eiver,  near  the 
present  town  of  Ottawa. 

102.  When  was  coal  first  mined  in  America  ? 
Coal  was  first  mined  in  America  in  1750  in 

the  Virginia  Bituminous  coal  fields,  which 
39 


Coal  Catechism 


were  opened  and  worked  on  the  James  Biver, 
near  Bichmond. 

103.    Was  this  an  American  enterprise  ? 

The  Virginia  mines  were  owned  and  oper- 
ated by  an  English  company,  who  for  some 
time  enjoyed  the  exclusive  coastwise  trade  of 
the  United  States. 

104-    Was  this  trade  very  large  ? 

Not  much  coal  was  produced  at  first.  The 
output  was  so  expensively  mined  and  the  cost 
so  great  that  few  individuals  used  it  in  the 
coast  cities,  but  burned  wood  instead. 

105.  Are  the  mines  still  in  operation  ? 
Small  operations  are  still  carried  on  at  the 

Gayton  mines  in  Henrico  County  and  the 
Midlothian  mines  in  Chesterfield  County, 
near  Bichmond,  Virginia. 

106.  What  peculiar  features  do  these  Vir- 
ginia coal  fields  possess  f 

With  one  exception  they  are  the  only  coal 
fields  in  the  United  States  which  are  situated 
at  or  near  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 
40 


Coal  Catechism 


107.  Where  are  the  other  Atlantic  seaboard 
mines  located  ? 

In  the  State  of  Rhode  Island. 

108.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  coal  found 
there  ? 

In  Ehode  Island  is  found  a  hard  Anthracite 
coal,  with  occasional  beds  of  plumbago,  and 
pure  graphite,  commonly  known  as  black- 
lead. 

109.  Are  the  Ehode  Island  mines  in  opera- 
tion ? 

Many  efforts  have  been  made  to  work  these 
coals  in  competition  with  the  great  Pennsyl- 
vania coal  beds,  but  practically  without  suc- 
cess. They  are  not  now  in  operation. 

110.  When  was  Anthracite  coal  first  discov- 
ered in  America  ? 

Anthracite  coal  was  first  discovered  in 
Ehode  Island  in  1760.  In  1766  it  was  first 
found  in  the  Wyoming  Valley,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, by  James  Tilghman,  of  Philadelphia, 
who  sent  a  small  sample  of  it  to  William 
Penn,  in  London.  It  was  known  in  1770 
41 


Coal  Catechism 


that  Anthracite  coal  could  be  had  near  the 
towns  of  Mahanoy  and  Shamokin,  in  Penn- 
sylvania, and  in  1790  its  presence  was  discov- 
ered near  Mauch  Chunk,  in  the  Lehigh  region 
of  Pennsylvania. 

111.  When  was  the  first  shipment  of  Anthra- 
cite coal  made  in  the  United  States  f 

During  the  Eevolutionary  War,  in  1776, 
coal  was  taken  to  Carlisle  for  the  United 
States  Army.  It  was  taken  to  Harrisburg, 
the  present  capital  of  Pennsylvania,  in  boats, 
or  arks,  and  from  there  hauled  in  wagons  to 
Carlisle. 

112.  What    other    shipment  was    made  by 
wagon ? 

In  1800  William  Morris  took  a  wagon  load 
of  Anthracite  coal  from  Tamaqua  to  Phila- 
delphia, a  distance  of  nearly  100  miles,  but 
was  unable  to  sell  it. 

113.  Why  could  he  not  sell  it  f 

The  coal  could  not  be  made  to  burn,  and 
was    condemned    as    nothing    but   "black 
stones"  and  unfit  for  use. 
42 


Coal  Catechism 


11 If.    How  was  coal  first  shipped  by  water? 

It  was  loaded  on  rudely  constructed  boats 
called  u arks'7  and  floated  down  the  rivers, 
in  the  direction  of  the  current,  to  its  destina- 
tion. 

115.  What  were  these  arks  like  ? 

They  were  made  of  rough  timbers,  about 
90  feet  long  by  16  feet  wide  and  4  feet  in 
depth.  Each  end  terminated  in  a  sharp 
point,  with  a  single  oar,  some  30  feet  long, 
requiring  two  men  to  work  it.  It  usually 
took  four  men  seven  days  to  navigate  an  ark 
from  the  Anthracite  mines  of  Pennsylvania 
to  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  the  cost  of  the  trip 
being  about  $50. 

116.  How  much  did  an  ark  cost  ? 

The  total  cost  of  an  ark  was  $70,  and  as  it 
could  not  be  brought  back  up  stream  or 
against  the  current  it  had  to  be  sold  with  the 
coal  for  about  $15. 

117.  What  was  the  cost  of  transporting  coal 
by  this  system  ? 

About  $5. 00  per  ton. 
43 


Coal  Catechism 


118.  How  does  this  price  compare  with  the 
present  price  of  transportation  by  railroads  ? 

It  was  nearly  five  times  greater. 

119.  At  what  price  was  Anthracite  coal  sold 
in  those  days  ? 

Anthracite  coal  was  sold  in  Philadelphia 
and  Baltimore  at  from  $10  to  $12  per  ton. 

120.  What  was  the  capacity  of  an  arTc  ? 
An  ark  held  about  60  tons  of  run-of-mine 

coal. 

121.  What  is  meant  by  i  l  run-of-mine J '  coal  ? 
Coal  as  it  is  dug  in  the  mines,  lump  and 

fine  coal  all  together,  without  any  prepara- 
tion or  screening,  is  called  run  of  mine. 

122.  When  was  the  first  ark-load  of  Clear- 
field  semi- Bituminous  coal  shipped  ? 

In  1804  William  Boyd  shipped  the  first 
ark-load  of  Clearfield  coal  down  the  Susque- 
hanna  Eiver  to  Columbia,  in  Pennsylvania, 
a  distance  of  about  260  miles.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  other  shipments  at  irregular  in- 
tervals. 

44 


Coal  Catechism 


128.  Was  this  system  of  transportation  a  safe 
and  easy  one  ? 

On  the  contrary,  it  was  very  dangerous 
and  risky,  on  account  of  the  rapid  currents 
and  submerged  rocks  in  the  beds  of  the 
rivers. 

124.  W hat  proportion  of  accidents  occurred 
to  these  coal  arks  ? 

Only  two -thirds  of  the  arks  which  started 
down  the  rivers  ever  reached  their  destina- 
tion, one-third  generally  going  to  pieces  on 
the  bars  and  rocks. 

125.  What  other  attempt  of  transporting  coal 
by  wagons  followed  that  of  Mr.  Morris  ? 

An  attempt  was  made"  in  1812  by  Colonel 
George  Shoemaker,  of  Pottsville,  to  haul  coal 
by  wagons  and  horses  to  Philadelphia.  He 
succeeded  in  delivering  nine  wagon-loads  of 
Anthracite. 

126.  Was  his  venture  a  success  ? 

The  public  was  not  familiar  with  "hard 

coal,"  having  used  nothing  but  Bituminous, 

and  Colonel  Shoemaker  was  regarded  as  an 

impostor    for    attempting    to    sell    "  black 

45 


Coal  Catechism 


stones ' J  as  coal.     He  had  some  difficulty  in 
getting  out  of  the  city  to  avoid  arrest ! 

127.  What  became  of  the  nine  wagon-loads 
of  Anthracite  coal  ? 

Of  the  nine,  two  loads  were  sold,  and  the 
other  seven  loads  he  gave  away. 

128.  How   was  it   ascertained   that  Colonel 
Shoemaker's  coal  would  burn  ? 

A  whole  night  was  spent  in  the  effort  to 
make  the  coal  burn,  when  the  men  quit  their 
work  in  despair,  but  left  the  furnace  door 
shut.  One  of  the  workmen  returning  some 
time  afterward  found  everything  red-hot. 

129.  When  was  the  first  cargo  of  Anthracite 
coal  shipped  "outside  the  Capes"  ? 

In  1823  the  first  cargo  of  Anthracite  coal 
was  shipped  around  Cape  Cod  by  vessel,  con- 
signed to  the  Boston  Iron  Works. 

130.  When  icas  the  first  shipment  of  Bitu- 
minous coal  made  from  a  Pennsylvania  mint  to 
the  seaboard  ? 

In  1828   an  ark -load  of  Bituminous  coal 
from  Karthaus,   in   Clear-field   County,  Pa., 
46 


Coal  Catechism 


was  taken  down  the  Susquehanna  Kiver  to 
Port  Deposit,  at  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay, 
and  was  then  reloaded  into  a  sailing  vessel 
and  carried  to  Philadelphia. 

131.  When  wan  the  first  shipment  of  Bitumi- 
nous coal  made  from  a  Maryland  mine  to  the 
seaboard ? 

In  1842  the  first  shipment  of  Bituminous 
coal  from  the  Cumberland  region,  in  Mary- 
land, was  made  by  railroad  to  Baltimore, 
over  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Eailroad. 

132.  What  was  the  cost  of  transporting  An- 
thracite coal  by  wagons  and  horses  to  J'hUtidvl- 
plda  ? 

From  $25  to  $30  per  ton,  which  was  so 
great  as  to  make  it  impracticable. 

133.  What  other  systems  of  transportation 
came  into  use  ? 

The  introduction  of  steam  power,  at  about 
the  year  1812,  rendered  some  of  our  rivers 
navigable  up  stream  as  well  as  down,  and 
about  this  time  the  construction  of  canals  was 
begun  in  various  States,  notably  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland,  and  Virginia. 
47 


Coal  Catechism 


What  is  the  first  recorded  movement  of 
coal  "by  rail77  ? 

In  1812,  at  Leeds,  in  England,  an  engine, 
made  by  Blenkinsop,  hauled  33  coal- wagons, 
on  a  railroad,  at  a  speed  of  31  miles  per 
hour. 

135.  When  was  the  first  attempt  made  to 
haul  coal  with  locomotives  in  the  United  States  ? 

In  1829  the  first  application  of  steam  to 
coal  transportation  was  made  by  Horatio 
Allen,  at  Honesdale,  for  the  Delaware  and 
Hudson  Canal  Company.  His  locomotive, 
called  the  u  Stourbridge  Lion,77  and  weigh- 
ing seven  tons,  was  imported  from  England. 
It  ran  at  a  speed  of  10  miles  per  hour. 

136.  How  many  miles  of  railroad  were  in 
operation    in   the    United   States   in   the  year 
1830? 

About  40  miles  altogether. 

137.  How  many  miles  are  now  in  operation  ? 
Over  203,000  miles,  or  six  times  that  of  any 

other  country  in  the  world. 
48 


Coal  Catechism 


138.  Who  invented  the  railroad  ? 

To  the  coal  operators  in  the  North  of  Eng- 
land is  unquestionably  due  the  invention  of 
the  railroad. 

139.  Why  is  the  invention  due  to  them  ? 
They  first  contrived  the  double  parallel  line 

of  rails  fixed  to  the  ground  and  furnished 
with  flanges  to  prevent  the  wheels  of  the 
wagons  from  slipping  aside  when  hauling 
coal. 

140.  What  were  these  contrivances  called  ? 

These  early  railroads  were  called  "  tram- 
ways," and  they  are  the  origin  of  all  the  rail 
transportation  systems  in  the  world. 


49 


CHAPTEE  FOUB 

GEOGRAPHY 

IJ^l.  How  do  the  American  coal  fields  com- 
pare with  the  transatlantic  fields  ? 

In  area  the  American  coal  fields  rank  first 
of  all  known  coal  fields  in  the  world. 

142.  How  do   they   compare  with   those  of 
Great  Britain  ? 

The  American  fields  are  37  times  greater 
than  the  coal  fields  of  Great  Britain,  accord- 
ing to  estimates  made  by  Professor  Jevons, 
an  eminent  English  scientist. 

143.  What  is  meant  by  "  the  geography  of 
American  coals  "  ? 

The  geography  of  American  coals  is  a  de- 
scription of  the  coal  fields  of  America  and 
their  locations. 

144.  Which  State  is  the  most  important  of 
the  coal  producers  ? 

Pennsylvania  is  the  largest  coal  producing 
State  in  the  Union. 


Coal  Catechism 


145.  Which  is  the  most  important  coalfield 
in  the  United  States  ? 

The  Anthracite  regions  of  Pennsylvania 
are  of  the  first  importance  in  the  American 
coal  fields. 

146.  Where  are  they  located  ? 
Geographically  the  Anthracite  fields  are 

located  about  the  middle  of  the  eastern  por- 
tion of  the  State,  and  include  the  counties  of 
Susquehanna,  Lackawanna,  Luzerne,  Carbon, 
Schuylkill,  Columbia,  Northumberland  and 
Dauphin. 

147.  What  is  the  area  of  this  field  ? 

The  Anthracite  regions  of  Pennsylvania 
are  comparatively  small,  embracing  only 
about  480  square  miles. 

148.  How  much  did  the  Proprietary  Gov- 
ernment pay  for  this  strip  of  coal  land  ? 

It  was  purchased  for  £500,  or,  in  American 
money,  about  $2, 500. 

149-  Did  the  purchase  prove  to  be  a  profitable 
investment  ? 

From  that  investment  we  have  realized 
51 


Coal  Catechism 


nearly  $5,000,000,000— the  value  of  the  coal 
mined,  at  tide-water—since  operations  first 
began. 

150.  Are    there    any  other  Anthracite   coal 
fields  in  the  United  States  * 

There  are  some  fields  of  Anthracite  coal  in 
Colorado,  New  Mexico  and  Virginia,  but 
they  are  small,  and  thus  far  have  not  pro- 
duced much  coal. 

151.  How  are  the  Anthracite  coal  fields  of 
Pennsylvania  divided  ? 

For  trade  purposes  they  are  divided  into 
three  regions— viz.,  the  Wyoming,  Schuyl- 
kill  and  Lehigh. 

152.  Of  the  three  regions  named,  which  is  the 
most  important  ? 

The  Wyoming  region  is  by  far  the  most 
important,  producing,  as  it  does,  over  50  per 
cent,  of  the  entire  output  of  Anthracite  coal. 

153.  Which  region  is  the  next  in  impor- 
tance f 

The  next  in  size  and  production  is  the 
Schuylkill  region,  with  35  per  cent,  of  the 
52 


Coal  Catechism 


entire  output,  while  the  Lehigh  region  comes 
last  with  the  remaining  15  per  cent,  of  pro- 
duction. 

154'  Where  are  the  Anthracite  fields  of  Col- 
orado situated  f 

In  Colorado  the  only  Anthracite  coal  mined 
comes  from  the  Grand  River  field,  in  the  ex- 
treme western  part  of  the  State,  which  in- 
cludes the  counties  of  Eio  Blanco,  Garfield, 
Mesa,  Delta,  Pitkin  and  Gunnison. 

155.  Where  are  the  Anthracite  fields  of  New 
Mexico  situated  ? 

In  New  Mexico  the  Anthracite  territory  is 
in  Santa  Fe  County. 

156.  What  curious  coal  formation  here  oc- 
curs ? 

In  some  parts  of  New  Mexico  both  Anthra- 
cite and  Bituminous  coal  occur  in  the  same 
mines. 

157.  What  is  the  cause  of  this  occurrence  ? 
It  is  supposed  that  the  heat  of  the  porphy- 

ritic  rock  which  here   penetrates   the  coal 
measures  caused  the  transformation  of  Bi- 
tuminous coal  into  Anthracite. 
53 


Coal  Catechism 


158.  How  do  the  Bituminous  coal  fields  of 
the   United   States   compare   in   area  with  the 
Anthracite  ? 

The  territory  in  which  Bituminous  coal  is 
found  in  the  United  States  is  more  than  400 
times  as  extensive  as  the  Anthracite  fields. 

159.  How  are  the  Bituminous  coal  fields  of 
the  United  States  divided  ? 

They  are  divided  into  seven  regions,  as  fol- 
lows : — The  Triassic,  Appalachian,  Northern, 
Central,  Western,  Eocky  Mountain  and  Pa- 
cific coast. 

160.  Which  of  these  divisions  is  the  most 
important  ? 

The  Appalachian  region  is  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  seven  great  Bituminous  divisions 
of  the  United  States. 

161.  Where  is  it  situated  ? 

It  extends  from  the  northern  part  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  a  southwesterly  direction,  follow- 
ing the  great  Appalachian  chain  of  moun- 
tains, to  the  central  part  of  Alabama. 
54 


Coal  Catechism 


162.  What  is  the  area  of  this  field  ? 

Its  area  is  about  62,690  square  miles,  cover- 
ing nearly  all  of  western  Pennsylvania,  the 
southeastern  part  of  Ohio,  the  western  part 
of  Maryland,  the  southwestern  corner  of  Vir- 
ginia, nearly  all  of  West  Virginia,  the  eastern 
part  of  Kentucky,  a  portion  of  eastern  Ten- 
nessee, the  northwestern  corner  of  Georgia, 
and  nearly  all  northern  Alabama. 

163.  What  is  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
Appalachian  Bituminous  field? 

Its  length  is  a  little  over  900  miles,  and  it 
ranges  in  width  from  30  to  180  miles. 

164.  Which  is  the  next  in  importance  of  the 
seven  grand  divisions  of  the  Bituminous  coal 
fields  ? 

The  second  region  in  importance  and  pro- 
ducing capacity  is  the  central  field,  which  in- 
cludes all  of  Indiana  and  Illinois  and  the 
western  part  of  Kentucky,  with  an  area  of 
47,850  square  miles. 

165.  Which  is   the  third  Bituminous  field 
in  importance  and  product  ? 

The  western  region,  embracing  all  the  coal 
55 


Coal  Catechism 


areas  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  south  of 
the  forty-third  parallel,  and  east  of  the  Eocky 
Mountains,  including  Iowa,  Missouri,  Ne- 
braska, Kansas,  Arkansas,  Texas  and  Indian 
Territory,  in  area  about  25,000  square  miles. 

166.  What  does  the  Eocky  Mountain  Bitu- 
minous field  include  ? 

The  Eocky  Mountain  region  includes  the 
coal  areas  contained  in  Colorado,  Idaho, 
Montana,  New  Mexico,  North  Dakota,  Utah 
and  Wyoming,  estimated  at  about  25,000 
square  miles. 

167.  What  does  the  Pacific  coast  field  em- 
brace ? 

The  Pacific  coast  field  embraces  all  the  Bi- 
tuminous areas  in  the  three  States  bordering 
on  the  Pacific  Ocean, — California,  Oregon 
and  Washington.  Of  the  three  States  in- 
cluded in  this  field,  Washington  comes  first 
in  the  quantity  of  coal  produced,  Oregon 
next,  and  California  last.  The  coal  produc- 
ing area  has  been  estimated  at  10,000  square 
miles. 

56 


Coal  Catechism 


168.  Where  is  the  Northern  field  ? 

This  is  altogether  in  the  State  of  Michigan, 
covering  an  area  of  6, 700  square  miles,  and 
including  nearly  all  the  central  part  of  the 
State. 

169.  W  here  are  the  principal  operations  in 
the  Northern  field  ? 

The  principal  operations  are  carried  on 
near  the  city  of  Saginaw,  in  Saginaw  County, 
Michigan. 

170.  What   does  the    Triassic  region  com- 
prise ? 

The  Triassic  region  comprises  what  is 
known  as  the  Kichmond  basin,  in  Chesterfield 
and  Henrico  counties,  Virginia,  and  the  Deep 
Eiver  and  Dan  Eiver  fields  in  North  Caro- 
lina. 

171.  W  hat  is  peculiar  in  the  coal  formations 
of  this  region  ? 

As  the  name  indicates,  the  coal  formations 
here  are  of  the  Triassic  geological  period,  or 
more  recent  than  those  of  the  Carboniferous 
age.  Here  also  is  found  coal  which  in  its 
formation  differs  materially  from  all  other 
57 


Coal  Catechism 


coal  formations  in  this  country,  and  which  is 
perhaps  the  oldest  coal  in  existence,  or  the 
first  creations  of  the  Carboniferous  age. 

172.  Which  State  in  the  Union  produces  the 
greatest  amount  of  Bituminous  coal  ? 

Pennsylvania,  which  produces  each  year 
about  twice  as  much  Bituminous  coal  as  it 
does  Anthracite. 

173.  In  which  State  does  the  great  Appalach- 
ian coal  field  cover  the  most  area  ? 

In  West  Virginia  the  total  coal  area  em- 
braces about  16,000  square  miles,  or  60  per 
cent,  more  than  Pennsylvania,  and  more  than 
80  per  cent,  of  the  total  Bituminous  area  of 
Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  combined. 

174-    Which   is  the  second  State  in  impor- 
•  tame  of  the  coal  producers  ? 

Illinois  ranks  second  in  coal  production, 
but  is  first  in  coal  area,  which  is  about  four 
times  as  large  as  the  Bituminous  areas  in 
Pennsylvania,  more  than  twice  as  large  as 
that  of  West  Virginia,  and  more  than  half 
as  large  as  the  entire  Appalachian  coal  field. 
58 


Coal  Catechism 


175.  How  does  West  Virginia  rank  amongst 
the  coal  producing  States  f 

West  Virginia  ranks  the  third  in  impor- 
tance amongst  the  coal  producing  States,  hav- 
ing a  Bituminous  area  of  about  24,000  square 
miles. 

176.  Which  are  the  principal  Bituminous 
coal  producing  States  in  the  Union  ? 

These  four  States  :  Pennsylvania,  Illinois, 
West  Virginia  and  Ohio.  Together  they 
produce  more  than  twice  as  much  coal  as  all 
of  the  other  States  combined. 

177.  What  is  the  total  area  of  the  Bitumi- 
nous coal  fields  in  the  United  States  f 

In  some  parts  of  the  Western,  Eocky  Moun- 
tain, and  Pacific  coast  fields  the  areas  are  as 
yet  unknown,  but  the  latest  developments 
show  a  Bituminous  area  of  nearly  200,000 
square  miles. 


69 


CHAPTEE  FIVE 

PRODUCTION 

178.  What  is  the  coal  production   of  the 
United  States? 

The  present  annual  total  output  from  the 
coal  mines  of  the  United  States  is  about 
350,000,000  tons,  of  2,000  pounds  to  each 
ton. 

179.  What  does  this  include  ? 

This  includes  all  the  coal  sent  to  market, 
either  by  shipment  from  the  mines  to  distant 
points,  that  which  is  sold  locally,  and  also 
the  coal  consumed  by  the  mine  employees  and 
by  the  mine  operators  in  locomotives,  under 
stationary  boilers,  etc.,  in  working  the  mines, 
and  technically  known  as  u  colliery  consump- 
tion. '  >  It  also  includes  the  coal  manufactured 
into  coke. 

180.  How  much  coal  is  used  in  colliery  con- 
sumption and  locally  near  the  mines  ? 

About  10,000,000  tons,  of  2,000  pounds 
each,  are  used  annually  for  colliery  consump- 
tion, and  12,000,000  for  local  trade. 


Coal  Catechism 


181.  How  much  of  this  annual  production  is 
Anthracite  coal  ? 

The  annual  production  of  Pennsylvania 
Anthracite  coal,  which  practically  includes 
all  the  Anthracite  coal  produced  in  the 
United  States,  is  about  65,000,000  tons  of 
2,000  pounds. 

182.  What  is  the  value  of  this  coal  ? 

The  value  of  Pennsylvania  Anthracite  coal 
is  about  $130,000,000,  or  an  average  of  $2.00 
per  ton  of  2,000  pounds  at  the  mines. 

183.  How  many  men  are  employed  in  pro- 
ducing the  Pennsylvania  Anthracite  coal  ? 

The  number  of  men  employed  in,  and 
about  the  Anthracite  mines  is  about  145,000. 

184'  How  many  days  in  the  year  are  these 
men  employed  ? 

The  Anthracite  miners  average  175  work- 
ing days,  or  about  two-thirds  of  the  time. 

185.  Of  the  total  production  of  Anthracite 
coal,  how  much  is  mined  outside  of  Pennsyl- 
vania ? 

Only  60,000  tons  of  2,000  pounds  each, 
61 


Coal  Catechism 


which    is    mined    in    Colorado    and    New 
Mexico. 

186.  What  is  the  total  production  of  Bitumi- 
nous coal  in  the  United  States  ? 

The  total  production  of  Bituminous  coal  is 
about  285,000,000  tons  of  2,000  pounds  each 
annually. 

187.  What  does  this  embrace  ? 

It  embraces  all  the  Bituminous,  semi -Bi- 
tuminous, gas-coals,  canuel,  block,  lignite 
and  brown  coals. 

188.  What  is  the  value  of  this  coal  ? 

The  present  value  of  the  total  Bituminous 
production  of  the  United  States  is  about 
$285,000,000,  or  an  average  of  about  $1.00 
per  ton  of  2, 000  pounds,  at  the  mines. . 

189.  How  many  men  are  employed  in  pro- 
ducing this  coal  ? 

The  number  of  men  employed  in  producing 
the  Bituminous  tonnage  is  about  350,000. 

190.  How  many  days  in  the  year  are  these 
men  employed  ? 

The  Bituminous  miners  average  225  work- 
62 


Coal  Catechism 


ing    days,    or    about    three-fourths    of   the 
time. 

191.  Which  is  the   most  important  of  the 
coal-producing  States  ? 

Pennsylvania  comes  first,  with  about  30 
per  cent,  of  the  total  Bituminous  product ; 
but  including  her  Anthracite  product  Penn- 
sylvania produces  51  per  cent,  of  the  total 
coal  output. 

192.  Which  State  is  the  second  in  the  pro- 
duction of  coal  ? 

Illinois  comes  second,  with  9  per  cent,  of 
the  total  coal  output. 

193.  Which  State  is  the  third  in  coal  pro- 
duction ? 

West  Virginia  is  the  third  in  production, 
with  8  per  cent,  of  the  total. 

194.  Which  State  is  the  fourth  in  importance 
of  the  coal  producers  ? 

Ohio  is  the  fourth  in  production,  with  7 
per  cent,  of  the  total  tonnage  of  the  United 
States. 

63 


Coal  Catechism 


195.  Name  the  other  coal- producing  States  as 
they  rank  in  production  ? 

Alabama  is  the  fifth  State  in  the  produc- 
tion of  coal  5  then  comes  Indiana,  Colorado, 
Iowa,  Kansas,  Tennessee,  Maryland,  Wyo- 
ming, Missouri,  Indian  Territory,  Virginia, 
Washington,  Arkansas,  Montana,  Utah,  New 
Mexico,  Michigan,  Texas,  Georgia  and 
North  Carolina  in  the  order  named. 


196.  Is  any  coal  produced  outside  of  these 
States  ? 

A  small  annual  production  comes  from 
California,  North  Dakota,  Oregon  and  Idaho, 
but  the  total  amount  is  comparatively  small. 

197.  What  is  the  average  production  of  An- 
thracite coal  per  man  per  ivorking  day  in  the 
United  States  ? 

The  average  number  of  tons  produced  per 
working  day  by  each  man  employed  in  all 
capacities  in  the  Anthracite  fields  of  the 
United  States  is  shown  by  statistics  to  be 
about  two  net  tons. 

64 


Coal  Catechism 


198.  What  is  the  average  production  of  Bi- 
tuminous coal  per  man  per  working  day  in  the 
United  States  ? 

The  average  number  of  tons  produced  per 
working  day  by  each  man  employed  in  the 
Bituminous  fields  of  the  United  States  is 
shown  by  statistics  to  average  about  three  net 
tons. 

199.  How  much  of  the  coal  production  of  the 
United  States  is  manufactured  into  coke  ? 

Of  the  total  coal  production  of  the  United 
States  about  39,400,000  tons  is  manufactured 
into  coke. 

200.  In  what  year  was  Anthracite  coal  first 
produced  in   Pennsylvania-  and  what  was  the 
total  tonnage  ? 

In  1820  the  total  Anthracite  production  of 
Pennsylvania  was  365  tons,  which  was  shipped 
from  the  Lehigh  region. 

201.  Where  is  the  coal  production  of  the 
United  States  sold  ? 

Almost  the  entire  production  of  American 
coal  is  sold  and  consumed  at  home,  although 
a  small  percentage  is  exported  to  other  coun- 
65 


Coal  Catechism 


tries,  principally  by  rail  over  the  interna- 
tional bridges  and  by  lake  and  sea  to  the 
Canadian  provinces. 

202.  What  other  exports  of  American  coal 
are  made  by  sea  ? 

Other  small  tonnages  are  exported  by  sea 
to  the  West  Indies,  to  Central  and  South 
America,  and  elsewhere. 

203.  What  is  the  total  amount  of  these  ex- 
ports annually  ? 

The  total  amount  of  coal  exported  annually 
from  the  United  States  to  other  countries  is 
now  about  8,000,000  tons. 

204.  Are  there  any  imports  of  coal  made 
from  foreign  countries  to  the  United  States  ? 

A  small  amount  of  coal  is  added  to  the  pro- 
duction in  the  United  States  by  imports, 
principally  from  Australia  and  British  Co- 
lumbia to  San  Francisco,  from  Great  Britain 
to  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts,  and  from 
Nova  Scotia  to  Atlantic  coast  points. 

205.  What  is  the  total  amount  of  these  im- 
ports annually  ? 

The  total  amount  of  foreign  coal  imported 
66 


Coal  Catechism 


annually  to  the  United  States  is  now  about 
2,000,000  tons. 

206.  Is  there  any  duty  or  tariff'  on  these  im- 
ported coals  f 

The  United  States  Government  has  had  a 
tariff  on  imported  coals  since  1824,  excepting 
on  Anthracite  coal,  which  has  been  free  of 
duty  since  1870,  and  on  coal  from  the  British 
possessions  in  North  America,  which  under 
the  reciprocity  treaty  was  admitted  free  of 
duty  during  the  period  from  June,  1854,  to 
March,  1866. 

207.  How  has  the  tariff  on  imported  coals 
varied  since  1824  ? 

From  1824  to  1843  the  tariff  was  $1.68  per 
long  ton  (  2,240  pounds  ). 

From  1843  to  1846  the  tariff  was  $1.75  per 
long  ton. 

From  1846  to  1857,  30  per  cent,  ad  valorem 
was  charged. 

From  1857  to  1861,  24  per  cent,  ad  valorem 
on  all  foreign  coals. 

During  1861  Bituminous  and  shale  paid 
$1.00  and  all  others  50  cents  per  ton. 
67 


Coal  Catechism 


From  1862  to  1864,  Bituminous  and  shale, 
$1.10  per  ton  ;  all  others,  60  cents  per  ton. 

From  1864  to  1872,  Bituminous  and  shale, 
$1. 25  per  ton  ;  all  others,  40  cents  per  ton. 

From  1872  to  1894,  Bituminous  and  shale, 
75  cents  per  ton ;  slack  or  culm,  40  cents. 

From  1894  to  1897,  Bituminous  and  shale, 
40  cents  per  ton ;  slack  or  culm,  15  cents. 

208.  What  is  the  present  duty  on  imported 
coal? 

By  act  of  Congress,  approved  July  24, 
1897,  the  duty  on  imported  coal  was  fixed  at 
67  cents  per  long  ton  "  on  all  coals  contain- 
ing less  than  92  per  cent,  of  fixed  carbon,  and 
shale"  j  and  on  coal  slack  or  culm  passed 
through  a  half-inch  screen,  15  cents  per  long 
ton.  (  The  collection  of  duty  was  suspended 
in  1903.) 

209.  How  much  coal  is  produced  annually  in 
the  world  ? 

The  total  production  of  coal  in  the  world  is 
something  over  950,000,000  tons  each  year. 

210.  Which  is  the  greatest  coal-producing 
country  in  the  world  ? 

At  the  head  of  all  coal-producing  countries 
68 


Coal  Catechism 


is  the  United  States,  with  an  annual  tonnage 
of  over  350,000,000  net  tons. 

211.  Which  country  ranks  second  in  coal 
production  ? 

Great  Britain  is  the  second  in  tonnage  with 
250,000,000  tons  annually. 

212.  Why  must  the    United   States  always 
rank  as  first  in  coal  production  ? 

Owing  to  the  vast  extent  of  American  coal 
fields  and  the  cheapness  of  production.  New 
coal  regions  are  constantly  being  developed, 
while  the  smaller  fields  of  the  old  world,  cir- 
cumscribed and  long  worked,  are  becoming 
more  expensive  in  operation  each  year. 

213.  Which  country  ranks  third  in  coal  pro- 
duction ? 

Germany  is  the  third  in  tonnage  of  the  coal- 
producing  countries,  having  an  annual  out- 
put of  nearly  170,000,000  tons. 

214-    Which  country  ranks  fourth  in  ton- 


Austria- Hungary  produces  nearly  43,000,- 
000  tons  of  coal  annually,  and  ranks  as 
fourth  in  tonnage. 

69 


Coal  Catechism 


215.  Name  the  fifth  in  rank  of  the  coal  pro- 
ducing countries  ? 

France  ranks  as  the  fifth  in  importance  of 
the  world's  coal  producers  with  36,000,000 
tons  annually. 

216.  Give  the  names  of  the  other  coal-pro- 
ducing countries  with  their  relative  importance 
and  annual  tonnage  ? 

Belgium  ranks  as  sixth  with  over  25,000,- 
000  tons;  Eussia  as  seventh  with  17,000,000 
tons;  Japan  as  eighth  with  8,000,000  tons; 
Canada  as  ninth  with  6,000,000  tons;  India 
and  New  South  Wales  6,000,000  tons  each  ; 
Spain,  3,000,000  tons  ;  and  New  Zealand, 
Sweden,  Italy,  Transvaal,  Queensland,  Vic- 
toria, Natal,  Cape  Colony,  and  Tasmania  with 
tonnages  ranging  from  1,000,000  to  40,000 
tons  annually. 

217.  What  percentage  of  the  whole  world's 
coal  production  is  mined  in  the  United  States  ? 

About  34  per  cent,  of  all  the  world7  s  coal 
is  produced  in  the  United  States. 


70 


CHAPTER  SIX 

CLASSIFICATION 

218.  How  do  we  classify  coal  ? 

In  the  family  of  the  carbons,  which  varies 
in  composition  from  the  fattest  or  most  highly 
volatile  and  Bituminous  substance  to  the 
leanest  and  least  combustible. 

219.  How  are  the  American  coals  classed  ? 
American    coals    are    divided    into    two 

kinds,  —  namely,  Anthracite  and  Bituminous. 
These  are  again  subdivided  into  many  vari- 
eties. 


Of  the  two  kinds,  which  is  more  rich 
in  carbon  ? 

Of  the  two  kinds  of  mineral  coal,  Anthra- 
cite contains  the  higher  percentage  of  car- 
bon. 

221.    Describe  Anthracite  coal  ? 

Anthracite  coal,  the  most  condensed  of 
mineral  fuel,  is  hard  and  varies  in  color  from 
a  glistening  black  to  dark  lead-gray.  It  is 


Coal  Catechism 


clean,  ignites  with  difficulty,  bums  with  a 
short  bluish  flame,  without  smoke,  and  has 
very  little  illuminating  power.  When  burn- 
ing it  throws  off  a  penetrating  sulphurous 
odor,  but  gives  an  intense,  concentrated  heat. 

222.  Of  what  does  Anthracite  coal  consist  ? 
The  constituents  of  Anthracite  coal  are 

carbon,  water  and  earthy  matter  in  acci- 
dental and  varying  mixtures.  Anthracite  is 
the  condensed  coke  of  Bituminous  coal. 

223.  What  is  the  usual  percentage  of  carbon 
contained  in  Anthracite  coal  ? 

The  percentage  of  carbon  in  Pennsylvania 
Anthracite  ranges  from  85  per  cent,  to  92 
per  cent.  In  the  Anthracite  of  South  Wales 
the  carbon  has  been  found  to  reach  as  high 
as  95  per  cent. ,  and  in  a  Eussian  variety  94 
per  cent. 

224-    What  is  the  average  percentage  of  ash  ? 
The  percentage  of  ash  in  Anthracite  coal 
ranges  from  4  per  cent,  to  8  per  cent. 

225.  Into  what  two  classes  are  the  Anthracite 
coals  divided  ? 

According  to  the  color  of  their  ashes,  pro- 

72 


Coal  Catechism 


duced  in  combustion,  the  Anthracites  are  di- 
vided into  two  classes,  known  as  "red  ash" 
and  "white  ash." 

226.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  Anthra- 
cite "  red  ash  "  coals  ? 

The  Anthracite  red  ash  coals  contain  a 
considerable  proportion  of  oxide  of  iron, 
which  gives  them  a  reddish  color.  They  are 
generally  more  easily  kindled  and  a  more 
free-burning  coal  than  the  white  ash,  but  from 
the  liability  to  clinker,  or  from  cinders, 
which  melt  and  adhere  to  the  walls  of  the 
grate  or  furnace,  they  are  not  so  much  es- 
teemed for  purposes  which  require  consider- 
able draught  as  the  white  ash  variety,  which 
sheds  its  ashes  freely.  For  burning  in  open 
grates  or  for  domestic  use,  with  a  moderate 
draft,  the  red  ash  coal  is  preferred. 

227.  Describe  the  physical  characteristics  of 
Anthracite  "  white  ash"  coals? 

The  Anthracite  white  ash  coals  are  harder 

than  the  red  ash  and  are  more  suited  to  carry 

the  burden  of  ore  in  a  blast-furnace  or  for 

any  use  requiring  a  strong  draught  for  com- 

73 


Coal  Catechism 


bustion,  as  in  large  heating  furnaces  or  under 
boilers  having  a  forced  artificial  draft. 

228.  How  is  the  relative  value  of  fuels  de- 
termined ? 

The  relative  value  of  fuels  is  determined 
by  the  quantities  of  water  evaporated  by  a 
certain  weight  of  each  fuel. 

229.  What  do  these  evaporative  tests  show  ? 
Coals  tested  in  this  way  show  that  the 

richer  a  coal  is  in  fixed  carbon  the  greater  is 
its  heating  power. 

230.  Under  this  test  which  coal  would  class 
higher  in  value  ? 

Anthracites  would  class  higher  in  value 
than  the  Bituminous  coals,  weight  for  weight, 
owing  to  the  higher  percentage  of  fixed  car- 
bon which  they  contain. 

231.  How  much  water  will  one  pound  of 
Pennsylvania  Anthracite  coal  evaporate  ? 

It  has  been  shown  by  laboratory  experi- 
ments that  one  pound  of  Pennsylvania  An- 
thracite coal  will  evaporate  15.56  pounds  of 
water. 

74 


Coal  Catechism 


232.  How  much  water  will  one  pound  of  Bi- 
tuminous coal  evaporate  ? 

A  pound  of  the  best  Scotch  coal  by  the 
same  experimental  tests  evaporated  only  7.74 
pounds  of  water,  and  of  the  best  English  Bi- 
tuminous only  9.07  pounds. 

233.  Are    these    laboratory  tests  conclusive 
proofs  of  the  relative  value  of  the  two  kinds  of 
coal? 

They  are  not,  as  these  results,  it  is  well 
known,  are  not  sustained  in  actual  practice 
or  commercially. 

234.  What  is  the  generally  accepted  theory 
of  the  actual  relative  values  of  fuels  ? 

It  has  been  proven  that  the  heat  value  of 
fuel  is  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  oxygen 
which  enters  into  the  combination,  whatever 
may  be  the  nature  of  the  combustible.  As 
hydrogen  and  the  gaseous  products  of  its 
combination  with  carbon  consume  much 
larger  proportions  of  oxygen  than  the  same 
weight  of  solid  carbon,  the  presence  of  these 
increases  the  heating  power  of  the  fuel. 
75 


Coal  Catechism 


235.  By  this  rule  which  coal  would  class  the 
higher  in  value  ? 

The  heavy  gas  coals  would  class  higher  in 
value  than  the  Anthracites,  weight  for  weight, 
owing  to  the  higher  percentages  of  gaseous 
matter  and  volatile  substances  which  they 
contain. 

236.  Is  this  rule  sustained  in  actual  practice  ? 
It  is  not,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  obtain- 
ing perfect  combustion. 

All  experiments  made  with  the  purpose  of 
ascertaining  the  relative  value  of  fuels  should 
be  made  in  the  particular  apparatus  especially 
designed  for  the  best  combustion  of  each  kind 
of  fuel.  When  this  is  done  it  is  found  that 
each  kind  of  coal  is  adapted  for  some  particu- 
lar use  in  preference  to  the  other,  and  that 
no  marked  superiority  is  peculiar  to  either. 

237.  Describe  Bituminous  coal  ? 
Bituminous    coal,    unlike    Anthracite,   is 

usually  soft,  friable,  and  easily  crushed  or 
broken  into  small  cubas  or  fibrous-like  pieces ; 
like  Anthracite,  it  varies  in  color  from  a 
bright,  shiny  black  to  dull  gray.  It  ignites 
76 


Coal  Catechism 


easily  and  burns  with  a  long,  reddish,  flame, 
interspersed  with  vivid  jets  of  bright,  highly 
illuminating  power,  and  gives  an  agreeable 
heat,  diffused  over  the  entire  mass. 

238.  Of  what  does  Bituminous  coal  consist  ? 
Bituminous  coal  consists  of  carbon,  volatile 

matter,  water  and  ash  ;  it  differs  from  An- 
thracite in  its  higher  percentage  of  volatile 
gases  and  its  lower  percentage  of  carbon. 

239.  What  is  the  usual  percentage  of  volatile 
matter  in  Bituminous  coal  % 

The  percentage  of  volatile  matter  in  Bi- 
tuminous coal  varies  greatly, — from  15  to  18 
per  cent.,  as  in  the  Cumberland,  Maryland, 
and  Clearfield,  Pennsylvania,  coals,  to  35  per 
cent.,  and  even  45  per  cent.,  as  in  the  West 
Virginia,  Ohio,  and  Indiana  coals. 

240.  How  do  we  distinguish  the  volatile  mat- 
ter in  coal  ? 

In  the  combustion  of  Bituminous  coal  the 
volatile  matter  it  contains  is  seen  in  the  flame 
which  it  produces. 

77 


Coal  Catechism 


241.  What  percentage  of  carbon  is  found  in 
Bituminous  coal  ? 

The  percentage  of  carbon  contained  in  Bi- 
tuminous coal  varies  from  50  per  cent,  to  80 
per  cent.  The  higher  the  carbon  the  less  will 
be  the  volatile  matter,  and,  conversely,  the 
higher  the  volatile  matter,  the  less  will  be  the 
carbon. 

242.  What  constitutes  the  energy  of  coal  ? 
The  energy  of  all  coals  is  in  the  combined 

carbon  and  volatile  matters  which  they  con- 
tain. These  two  added  together  constitute 
the  strength  or  body  of  all  fuels,  varying  as 
their  combustion  is  more  or  less  perfect. 

243.  Then  a  large  percentage  of  carbon  in 
coal  does  not  indicate  the  most  energy  ? 

Not  necessarily  so.  If  such  was  the  case, 
many  of  the  poorer  grades  of  Eussian  coal 
would  be  found  superior  to  our  heavy  gas 
coals  in  steaming  properties  which  is  not  the 
case  in  practice. 

244.  Does  a  large  percentage  of  -volatile  mat- 
ter in  coal  indicate  superior  strength  or  energy  ? 

Not  always.     Many  of  our  Western  coals, 

78 


Coal  Catechism 


ranging  the  highest  in  heavy  hydrocarbons  or 
volatile  combustible  gases,  give  the  poorest 
results  in  effective  energy  or  steam-raising 
power. 

245.    What  do  we  learn  from  these  examples  ? 

We  learn  that  a  coal  may  be  high  or  low  in 
volatile  matter  or  fixed  carbon  in  its  chemical 
analysis  and  give  entirely  different  results  in 
practice  than  such  determinations  would  in- 
dicate. 


.    Of  what  use  is  a  chemical  analysis  of 
coal  ? 

A  chemical  analysis  of  coal  will  determine 
the  amount  of  impurities  which  it  contains, 
such  as  ash,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  or  other 
harmful  constituents.  It  also,  in  a  great 
measure,  determines  for  what  uses  the  coal  in 
question  is  best  suited.  For  example,  a  coal 
high  in  volatile  matter  and  carbon  and  low  in 
ash  would  indicate  a  powerful  fuel  with  great 
effective  energy,  while  it  might  also  contain 
a  high  percentage  of  sulphur,  rendering  it 
unfit  for  the  manufacture  of  iron ;  on  the 
other  hand,  a  coal  may  be  comparatively  free 
79 


Coal  Catechism 


from  sulphur,  high  in  carbon,  and  so  low  in 
the  heavy  volatile  matter  and  density  as  to  be 
entirely  unsuitable  for  heavy  steaming  or  for 
combustion  under  forced  or  artificial  draughts. 


Into  what  two  classes  is  Bituminous  coal 
generally  divided  ? 

According  to  the  percentages  of  volatile 
matter  which  they  may  contain,  Bituminous 
coals  are  generally  divided  into  two  classes, 
known  as  steaming  coals  and  gas  coals. 
These  are  also  frequently  designated  as  Bi- 
tuminous and  semi-Bituminous,  and  are  again 
subdivided  as  "block  coal,"  "  cannel  coal," 
"smithing  coal,"  "coking  coal,"  etc. 

248.  Name  some  of  the  best  known  semi-  Bi- 
tuminous steaming  coals  ? 

Among  the  semi  -Bituminous  coals  of  Penn- 
sylvania are  those  known  as  "Clearfield," 
1  i  Broad  Top,  "  "  Eey  uoldsville,  "  "  Alle- 
gheny," "Meyersdale,"  "Mercer,"  and 
"Dagus";  of  Maryland,  the  "George's 
Creek,"  Cumberland,  and  "Pocahontas"  of 
Virginia. 

80 


Coal  Catechism 


249.  Where  are  the  principal  beds  of  gas 
coal  in  the  United  States  f 

The  principal  beds  of  gas  coal  in  the  United 
States  are  in  the  country  adjacent  to  Pitts- 
burg,  Pennsylvania,  and  southeasterly  along 
the  Alleghany  range  in  West  Virginia. 

250.  Which   is  the   most  important  of  the 
coking  coals  ? 

The  principal  bed  of  coking  coal  is  also 
found  in  Pennsylvania,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Connellsville,  and  in  West  Virginia. 

251.  What   is   the  principal  kind  of  coal 
found  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois  ? 

That  which  is  classed  as*  Bituminous.  The 
" block"  coal  found  in  a  part  of  Indiana, 
having  a  peculiar  fracture  into  cubical  blocks, 
is  of  special  value  for  furnaces. 


Describe  "  block  "  coal  ? 
Block  coal  has  a  laminated  structure  and 
is  composed  of  alternate  layers  of  dull  black 
coal  and  mineral  charcoal.     It  splits  readily 
into  sheets,  but  with  difficulty  is  broken  in 
the  opposite  direction.     It  swells  very  little 
81 


Coal  Catechism 


in  burning,  does  not  change  form,  and  never 
cokes  or  runs  together.  It  is  pure  and  free 
from  sulphur. 

253.  What  original  causes  produced  the  dif- 
ference in  the  various  coals  ? 

The  mixed  and  ever- varying  deposits  of 
carbon  and  clay  of  an  original  vegetation. 
In  the  Carboniferous  age  the  coal  vegetation 
was  dense  or  otherwise,  producing  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  coal  under  various  conditions. 


82 


CHAPTEE  SEVEN 

PROSPECTING 

How  is  coal  discovered  ? 
The  discoveries  of  coal  are  usually  made  by 
systematic  prospecting  in  the  rocks  which  are 
known  to  be  of  the  coal-forming  period.  Ac- 
cidental discoveries  of  coal  have  been  made 
by  persons  ignorant  of  geology,  but  the  prin- 
cipal coal  fields  of  America  have  been  devel- 
oped by  the  trained  prospector. 

255.  What  is  a  prospector  ? 

A  prospector  is  one  who  explores  a  country 
in  search  for  anything,  but  usually  for  min- 
erals. A  person  who  by  education  or  ex- 
perience is  qualified  to  search  for  coal  is 
called  a  coal-prospector. 

256.  What  is  the  most  common  evidence  on 
the  surface  of  coal  beneath  ? 

The  outcrop  of  coal  seams  which  by  acci- 
dent or  natural  causes  have  become  exposed 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Often,  how- 


Coal  Catechism 


ever,  the  cover  of  alluvial  matter  is  so  great 
as  completely  to  conceal  the  underlying  seams 
of  coal. 

257.  Of  what  use  is  this  covering  of  nature  ? 
In  this  alluvial  covering  is  the  soil  given 

us  for  cultivation  ;  but  apart  from  that,  were 
the  coal  seams  denuded  and  exposed  to  the 
elements,  the  coal  would  rapidly  deteriorate 
and  the  mining  operations  be  frequently 
stopped  by  heavy  rains  or  snow.  The  surface 
or  covering  provides  shelter  for  the  mines 
and  natural  channels  by  which  all  surface 
water  is  carried  to  the  adjacent  rivers. 

258.  Which    is    the  proper  term,  a  "  coal 
vein  "  or  "  coal  seam  "  ? 

Originally  a  deposit  of  coal  in  the  ground 
was  usually  called  a  coal  vein,  but  this  was 
before  the  orderly  continuity  of  the  coal  de- 
posits was  known  or  understood.  The  word 
"  vein"  as  applied  to  minerals  occurring  in 
veins  which  radiate  from  the  centre,  like  gold 
or  silver,  is  correct,  but  coal  never  is  found  in 
this  manner,  but  always  as  a  thin  sheet,  bed, 
or  stratum,  and  enclosed  in  parallel  strata  of 
84 


Coal  Catechism 


rocks ;  it  should  therefore  be  called  a 
"seam." 

259.  Are  the  coal  seams  uniformly  level  ? 
Not  always.     In  fact,  the  case  seldom  occurs 

where  the  beds  of  coal  do  not  vary  from  a 
slight  rise  or  fall  to  a  considerable  angle  of 
inclination  j  but  in  whatever  position  they 
may  happen  to  be  found,  each  particular 
seam  of  coal  will  be  continuous,  level,  or 
rolling,  as  the  case  may  be,  but  extending 
over  the  entire  coal  field  and  exhibiting  the 
same  general  characteristics,  excepting  at 
such  points  where  its  continuity  is  broken  by 
natural  or  accidental  causes. 

260.  How  does  a  prospector  search  for  coal  ? 

In  his  search  for  coal  the  prospector  ex- 
amines carefully  the  surface  and  the  exposed 
edges  of  rock  strata  on  the  banks  of  streams, 
rivers,  and  gullies.  He  also  considers  the 
position  of  the  rocks,  their  probable  displace- 
ment by  drift  or  glacial  action,  the  positions 
of  detached  boulders,  and  the  causes  of  their 
probable  removal  from  more  distant  localities. 
He  examines  old  wells,  the  river-beds  at  ex- 

85 


Coal  Catechism 


treme  low  water,  all  railroad  and  canal  cut- 
tings and  quarries,  as  well  as  collections  of 
local  geological  specimens. 

261.  Should  any  of  these  specimens  contain 
the   Carboniferous  flora,  what  would  that  indi- 
cate? 

The  coal-prospector  would  know  that  the 
rock  containing  the  geological  fragments  be- 
longed to  the  typical  coal  measures,  and 
therefore  he  would  have  good  prospects  of 
finding  coal  in  the  neighborhood  from  whence 
the  specimen  came. 

262.  What  is  the  usual  first  indication  of 
coal? 

The  first  indication  of  coal  when  found 
near  the  surface  is  the  " black  smut"  ;  or,  if 
search  is  made  in  ravines  or  beds  of  rivers 
and  streams,  the  prospector  looks  for  small 
bits  of  coal,  like  small  black  pebbles,  contin- 
uing his  search  up  stream  until  such  frag- 
ments disappear,  at  which  point  the  coal  crop 
is  close  at  hand. 

263.  How  is  the  coal  seam  located  ? 
Selecting   the  most  likely  spot,   a  small 

86 


Coal  Catechism 


square  excavation  is  made  on  the  hillside,  as 
if  digging  a  well,  and  when  the  seam  of  coal 
is  reached  an  open  drift  or  ditch  is  dug  from 
the  excavation  of  sufficient  grade  to  drain 
away  all  accumulating  water. 

264.  Supposing  the  surface  to  be  very  abrupt 
and  precipitous,  how  would  we  proceed  ? 

In  that  case  the  preliminary  excavations 
would  be  made  directly  into  the  coal  seam  by 
a  small  drift  or  tunnel. 

265.  How  are  the  positions  of  the  Bituminous 
coal  seams  usually  seen  on  the  surface? 

The  positions  of  the  various  Bituminous 
coal  seams  are  plainly  indicated  in  the 
" benches"  or  terraces  of  the  hillside,  which 
usually  occur  at  the  outcrop. 

266.  How  are  these  benches  formed  ? 

Coal  benches  are  caused  by  the  process  of 
erosion,  which  works  more  rapidly  and  easily 
on  the  soft  coal  outcroppings  than  upon  the 
enclosing  rocks,  thus  producing  the  steps, 
terraces,  or  benches  in  the  hillside. 
87 


Coal  Catechism 


267.  What  good  indication  of  coal  can  be 
found  in  water  ? 

Where  a  river  or  stream  deposits  a  light 
yellowish  covering  along  the  banks  and  over 
the  stones  and  other  objects  in  its  course,  we 
know  that  the  water  contains  iron  and  that 
it  probably  originates  in  a  bed  of  coal. 

268.  What     other     means     besides    patient 
searching  has  been  employed  to  discover  coal  ? 

There  are  a  great  many  recorded  instances 
of  the  discovery  of  coal  by  means  of  the 
virgula  dimnatorum,  or  divining  rod,  which 
are  more  curious  than  instructive.  It  was  said 
that  coal  was  thus  discovered  in  France  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century. 

269.  Can  a  prospector  always  depend  on  sur- 
face indications  to  locate  a  coal  seam  ? 

It  is  only  under  certain  conditions  that  the 
coal  seams  can  be  located  by  the  topograph- 
ical or  surface  indications.  The  great  amount 
of  drift  composed  of  soil  or  alluvial  covering 
often  completely  hides  the  coal  outcroppings 
and  the  position  of  the  coal  strata  from  view. 
88 


Coal  Catechism 


270.  When   such   is   the  case,  how  must  we 
proceed  ? 

When  no  surface  indications  can  be  ob- 
tained, after  thorough  search  has  been  made, 
we  must  ascertain  what  is  contained  in  the 
ground  by  boring  or  drilling  holes  from  the 
surface.  These  are  called  "  prospect  holes." 

271.  Where  should  such  drillings  be  made? 

In  selecting  spots  for  drilling,  the  pros- 
pector should  first  locate  on  the  surface  the 
probable  course  of  the  underneath  tunnel  or 
entry  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  and  judg- 
ment. On  this  line,  at  measured  distances, 
which  are  accurately  noted  in  a  record  book, 
the  points  are  marked  as  suitable  spots  for 
drilling. 

272.  What  is  the  most  simple  form  of  drill- 
ing ? 

The  most  simple  form  of  boring  is  with  a 
"  bit,"  or  iron  chisel,  similar  to  that  used  by 
stone-masons  for  drilling  holes  in  stone,  and 
used  in  the  same  manner, — alternately  raised 
and  dropped  as  the  hole  is  driven  deeper, 
and  turned  partly  around  with  each  drop,  so 


Coal  Catechism 


as  to  cut  a  round  hole  and  prevent  the  tool 
from  being  wedged  fast  in  the  rock. 

273.  How  is  the  "  bit "  raised  after  each 
drop? 

In  drilling  with  the  bit  and  rods  a  spring- 
pole — sometimes  a  young  growing  tree  bent 
over— is  used  to  lift  the  bit  after  each  drop. 
The  alternating  motion  up  and  down  is  done 
by  hand  power,  or  a  stirrup  is  attached  for 
the  driller  to  use  his  feet ;  hence  the  expres- 
sion, " kicking  down"  a  hole. 

274-  How  do  we  proceed  as  the  hole  becomes 
deeper  ? 

As  the  work  progresses  sections  of  iron  or 
wooden  rods  are  fastened  to  the  chisel  until 
the  required  depth  has  been  reached. 

275.  How  is  the  nature  of  the  strata  through 
which  the  drill  is  progressing  ascertained  ? 

When  some  depth  has  been  reached  by  the 
"bit"  and  rods  they  are  withdrawn,  and  the 
broken  bits  of  rock  are  taken  from  the  hole 
by  means  of  a  "  sludger." 
90 


Coal  Catechism 


276.  What  is  a  sludger  ? 

A  sludger  is  simply  a  short  length  of  iron 
pipe  fitted  at  the  bottom  end  with  a  foot- 
valve  or  traps,  so  that  the  churning  of  the 
sludger  up  and  down  will  gather  up  the 
pieces  of  rock  inside  the  pipe,  which — the 
valve  preventing  them  from  falling  out — are 
drawn  to  the  surface  and  there  carefully  ex- 
amined for  indications  of  coal.  For  this  pur- 
pose it  is  necessary  that  the  hole  be  kept  wet 
by  pouring  water  into  it  as  the  work  ad- 
vances. 

277.  How  are  the   rods  and  bit  withdrawn 
from  the  hole  ? 

The  rods  and  bit  soon  become  too  heavy  to 
be  withdrawn  from  the  hole  by  hand.  It  is 
then  necessary  to  withdraw  them  by  means 
of  a  rope  attached  to  a  pulley  and  derrick. 

278.  To  what  depth  can  a  hole  be  bored  by  the 
bit  and  hand  power  ? 

Holes  have  been  driven  by  this  system  to  a 
depth  of  900  feet,  but  ordinarily  it  is  not 
advantageous  to  a  depth  of  more  than  50  to 
75  feet.  Should  the  coal  seam  lie  deeper,  it 
would  then  be  necessary  to  use  a  power  drill. 
91 


Coal  Catechism 


279.  What  is  a  power  drill  ? 

A  power  drill  is  one  worked  by  other  than 
manual  labor,  as  steam,  electricity,  or  com- 
pressed air.  Usually  it  is  made  like  a  hollow 
cylinder,  and  is  furnished  at  its  base  or  cut- 
ting end  with  a  row  of  teeth  like  a  saw,  or 
with  four  or  six  bits,  or  generally  with  small 
pieces  of  black  diamonds  or  carbons,  in 
which  case  it  is  called  a  diamond  drill. 

280.  What  advantage  does  the  power  drill 
possess  over  the  bit  and  rods  ? 

By  this  system  of  drilling  a  more  perfect 
specimen  of  the  strata  is  obtained,  as  it  cuts 
a  solid  "core"  or  cylinder  out  of  the  rock, 
which  can  be  brought  to  the  surface  by  a 
spring  grapnel,  and  can  there  be  carefully 
examined  and  recorded.  It  has  the  addi- 
tional advantage  of  being  able  to  drill  holes 
in  any  direction  from  vertical  to  horizontal, 
like  a  common  auger. 

281.  Describe    the    "  core "   usually   found 
ivhen  drilling  for  coal  ? 

When  boring  for  coal  the  drill  first  passes 
through  the  soil  or  clay,  and  then  through 
92 


Coal  Catechism 


the  overlying  strata  of  limestone,  sandstone, 
etc.,  until  when  the  coal  measures  are  reached 
it  penetrates  the  black  shales,  and  often  mi- 
nute, thin  seams  of  coal  called  "  riders." 

282.  When  the  u  rider  J1  has  been  discovered , 
is  the  prospector  sure  of  success  ? 

Not  always,  as  there  may  be  nothing  else 
in  the  property  ;  but  usually  the  "  rider  "  is 
found  in  close  proximity  to  the  coal  seam 
itself,  and  the  probabilities  are  that  the  drill 
will  soon  drop  into  the  soft,  yielding  bed  of 
coal,  and  the  prospector's  task  will  be  fin- 
ished. 


93 


CHAPTEE  EIGHT 

DEVELOPMENT 

283.  The  prospector  having  found  the  coal 
j  what  is  the  first  step  in  its  development  f 

The  first  step  in  developing  a  seam  of  coal 
is  to  ascertain  the  best  location  for  an  open- 
ing into  it.  This  must  be  done  with  rare 
good  judgment,  as  on  this  depends  all  the 
future  working  of  the  property. 

28 Jf.   By  whom  should  this  work  be  done  ? 

To  the  trained  judgment  of  a  competent 
mining  engineer  should  be  left  the  location 
of  the  first  or  initial  opening  of  a  coal  seam, 
and  only  men  of  technical  knowledge  and 
experience  should  be  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

285.  What  are  the  different  methods  em- 
ployed for  developing  a  coal  seam  ? 

In  the  United  States  we  employ  four  meth- 
ods of  opening  a  coal  seam — namely,  the 
drift,  the  slope,  the  tunnel,  and  the  shaft, 


Coal  Catechism 


which  are  adopted  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  surface  and  the  position  of  the  coal  seams. 

286.  What  is  a  drift  mine  or  opening  ? 

A  drift  opening  is  very  simple.  It  consists 
of  a  small  opening,  about  6  feet  high  and  8 
feet  wide,  "drifted"  or  driven  into  the  coal 
seam  from  the  outcropping  and  making  a 
small  tunnel  in  the  coal  itself. 

287.  Where  should  a  drift  opening  begin  ? 
The  point  selected  for  beginning  a  drift 

opening  should  be  at  the  lowest  part  of  the 
outcrop,  so  that  any  water  met  with  in  the 
mine  will  drain  out  of  it,  and  also  that  the 
coal  can  be  easily  hauled  on  a  down  grade 
from  the  interior  to  the  tipple,  or  loading 
platform. 

288.  What  is  the  cheapest  mode  of  opening  a 
coal  seam  ? 

A  property  opened  by  "drifting"  at  the 
lowest  part  of  the  outcrop  and  progressing 
into  a  hill  at  a  slightly  ascending  uniform 
grade  is  the  cheapest  and  most  favorable  way 
in  which  a  coal  seam  can  be  opened. 
95 


Coal  Catechism 


289.  What  is  this  mode  or  system  called  ? 
When  a  coal  seam  is  opened  in  this  way 

the  coal  is  "taken  on  the  rise,"  as  it  is  called 
by  miners. 

290.  What    is  the   reverse  of   this  system 
called  ? 

Where  the  grade  of  the  drift  is  slightly  de- 
scending as  the  work  progresses  the  coal  is 
said  to  be  "  worked  on  the  dip." 

2&1.    Why  is  the  first  method  better  ? 

In  the  first  instance  the  drift  is  always  dry 
and  free  from  water,  as  it  runs  out  of  itself, 
while  in  the  latter  case  the  water  is  always 
ahead  of  the  workings  and  just  where  it  is 
the  most  troublesome — at  the  "face"  or  end 
of  the  drift  or  tunnel. 

292.  Why  is  the  drift  opening  not  universally 
adopted  ? 

Circumstances  are  rare  where  the  coal 
seams  are  so  favorably  located  as  to  furnish 
opportunities  for  drift  openings.  They  are 
not  usually  found  in  such  advantageous  posi- 
tions. 

96 


Coal  Catechism 


293.     What  is  a  tunnel  mine  or  opening  f 

A  tunnel  opening  is  a  drift  through  inter- 
vening rock  measures  to  the  coal  beyond. 
To  illustrate  a  tunnel  opening  one  must  sup- 
pose the  coal  seam,  instead  of  lying  flat  and 
parallel  to  the  horizon,  to  be  inclined  from 
the  outcrop  high  up  on  a  hillside  and  pitch- 
ing downward  into  and  through  the  hill. 
The  outcrop  being  too  high,  or  possibly  not 
exposed,  a  tunnel  is  driven  into  the  side  of 
the  hill  through  the  rock  at  water  level  until 
the  coal  is  reached ;  the  coal  is  then  mined 
and  hauled  out  to  the  tipple  through  the 
tunnel. 

294-  What  circumstance  determines  the  de- 
sirability of  using  the  tunnel  opening  ? 

The  length  of  the  tunnel  required  to  reach 
the  coal  would  determine  the  desirability  of 
this  mode  of  opening.  For  if  the  distance 
through  the  rock  were  too  great  the  cost  of 
opening  would  be  very  great  also,  and  the 
distance  necessary  for  hauling  the  coal,  if 
very  long,  would  add  too  much  to  the  cost  of 
operating. 

97 


Coal  Catechism 


What  is  a  dope  mine  or  opening  ? 
Where  the  coal  seam  crops  out  at  the  sur- 
face and  is  at  an  angle,  the  most  common  way 
of  opening  the  seam  is  by  a  slope,  which  is 
exactly  similar  to  a  drift,  the  main  gangway 
or  entry  being  driven  into  the  coal  itself,  but 
is  not  level,  the  drift  following  the  dip  of  the 
coal  downward  or  in  a  sloping  direction  into 
the  hill ;  hence  the  term,  a  slope  mine  or 
opening. 

296.  How  is  the  coal  mined  in  a  slope  open- 
ing ? 

When  the  principal  drift  has  reached  a 
suitable  distance  down  and  into  the  coal 
seam,  gangways  or  cross  headings  are  driven, 
at  right  angles  with  the  main  opening,  along 
the  "  strike  "  of  the  seam,  and  the  mining  of 
coal  begins  at  this  point. 

297.  What  is  the  "  dip  "  and  u  strike  "  of  a 
coal  seam  ? 

The  "dip"  of  a  coal  seam  is  its  angle  of 
inclination  measured  from  a  horizontal  line. 
The  "  strike  "  is  the  direction  of  any  horizon- 
tal line  along  or  across  the  seam.     It  is  al- 
98 


Coal  Catechism 


ways  at  right  angles  to  the  "dip."  An  ex- 
cellent illustration  of  the  dip  and  strike  of  a 
coal  seam  can  be  had  by  folding  a  vsheet  of  note- 
paper  so  that  one  part  is  horizontal  and  the 
other  hangs  down.  The  angle  which  the 
hanging  leaf  makes  with  the  other  is  the 
"  dip,"  and  the  line  where  the  two  leaves  are 
connected  is  the  "strike." 

298.  At  what  angle  of  inclination  in  the  coal 
seam  is  it  best  to  open  it  with  a  slope  ? 

Where  the  dip  of  the  coal  seam  inclines 
from  the  horizontal  more  than  15  or  20  de- 
grees it  is  best  to  work  the  seam  by  a  slope. 

299.  What  is  a  shaft  mine  or  opening  ? 
Where  the  coal  seam  is  found  in  a  flat 

country  and  lying  horizontally  some  distance 
or,  as  is  often  the  case,  below  water  level,  the 
opening  is  made  by  "shafting"  ;  that  is, 
sinking  a  shaft  or  hole  from  the  surface  to 
the  coal  seam  below.  A  mine  thus  developed 
is  called  a  shaft  mine. 

300.  What,  is  the  advantage  of  a  shaft  mine 
over  the  other  methods  of  development  ? 

The  advantage  in  opening  a  seam  of  coal 
99 


Coal  Catechism 


by  a  shaft  is  that  it  frequently  permits  the 
operator  to  penetrate  the  heart  of  the  seam 
at  once  and  to  extend  his  workings  in  every 
direction.  There  is  no  "crop  coal  "  to  work 
through,  as  in  the  drift  or  slope  openings. 

301.  How  is  a  shaft  opening  made  ? 

In  the  United  States  the  most  common  way 
is  to  begin  by  sinking  a  square  or  rectangular 
hole  through  the  surface  earth  until  the  bed- 
rock is  reached.  This  surface  earth  does  not 
often  exceed  a  depth  of  over  20  feet,  and 
must  be  kept  from  caving  in  during  the 
progress  of  the  work  and  thereafter  by  stout 
timbers  framed  together  or  by  a  stone  curb- 
ing, as  in  a  well.  When  the  solid  rock  has 
been  reached,  this  timber  or  stone  curbing 
sets  firmly  on  it,  and  no  further  timbering  is 
necessary  until  the  sinking  is  completed  and 
the  coal  has  been  reached. 

302.  What  is  the  proper  size  for  a  shaft  ? 
The  size  of  a  shaft  depends  entirely  on  the 

use  for  which  it  is  intended.     The  width  is 

seldom  over  12  feet ;  it  is  regulated  by  the 

length  of  the  small  mine  cars  in  use  in  the 

100 


Coal  Catechism 


mines ;  the  length  by  the  number  of  com- 
partments intended  to  be  used  in  its  opera- 
tion ;  the  depth  depends,  of  course,  on  the 
position  of  the  coal  seam. 

303.  What  is  the  size  and  number  of  com- 
partments used  in  a  shaft  ? 

A  compartment  is  usually  from  6  to  8  feet 
broad,  so  that  the  surface  opening  for  a  shaft 
with  2  compartments,  the  smallest  in  use, 
would  measure  12  feet  wide  by  18  or  20  feet 
in  length  j  a  surface  opening  for  6  compart- 
ments, an  unusually  large  one,  would  meas- 
ure 12  feet  wide  by  40  or  50  feet  in  length. 

304.  Is  the  size  of  a  shaft  opening  the  same 
for  its  entire  depth  ? 

The  first  sinking  of  the  shaft  through  the 
surface  soil  and  earth  is  made  from  4  to  8  feet 
longer  than  the  size  of  the  shaft  in  the  rock, 
in  order  to  give  room  for  the  timber  or  stone 
curbing  along  its  sides. 

305.  How  is  the  shaft  sinking  done  ? 

The  excavating  through  the  earth  is  done 
by  a  windlass,  or  the  earth  is  shoveled  on 
stages  or  platforms  and  then  carted  or  wheeled 
101 


Coal  Catechism 


away.  When  the  rock  is  reached,  holes  are 
drilled  into  it,  either  by  hand  or  power  drills, 
and  the  rock  is  removed  by  blasting  with 
powder  or  other  explosives. 

806.  How  is  the  coal  worked  after  it  has  been 
opened  by  a  shaft  ? 

When  the  coal  has  been  reached  at  the  bot- 
tom of  a  shaft,  a  "sump"  is  excavated  on 
the  dip  or  lower  side  in  the  coal.  This  sump 
catches  all  the  water,  which  from  it  is  pumped 
out  to  the  surface.  After  the  sump  has  been 
excavated,  working  gangways  are  driven 
right  and  left  into  the  seam,  and  from  them 
are  turned  the  "rooms"  in  which  the  miners 
work  the  coal. 

307.  What  is  the  ordinary  depth  of  a  coal 
shaft  in  the  United  States  ? 

In  this  country  a  shaft  is  seldom  sunk  over 
300  or  400  feet  in  depth.  The  deepest  shaft 
we  have  is  in  Pottsville,  in  the  Anthracite 
region — about  1,600  feet. 

SOS.  How  do  these  shafts  compare  with  those 
in  Europe? 

In  the  European  coal  fields  much  deeper 
102 


Coal  Catechism 


shafts  are  sunk  than  in  the  United  States  to 
reach  coal  seams  not  nearly  so  thick.  It  is 
not  unusual  to  sink  shafts  there  from  1,000  to 
3,000  feet  in  depth. 

309.  What  is  the  average  time  required  to 
sink  a  shaft  ? 

The  time  required  to  sink  a  shaft  under 
ordinary  conditions  has  been  estimated  at 
200  to  300  feet  per  year,  including  timbering. 

310.  What  is  the  cost  of  sinking  a  shaft 
through  hard  rock  ? 

The  cost  of  sinking  a  shaft  through  hard 
rock  is  placed  at  $5.00  to  $8.00  per  cubic 
yard  for  rectangular  shafts  of  an  average 
cross-section,  and  from  400  to  800  feet  deep. 
The  cost  increases  rapidly  with  the  depth, 
and  for  the  shafts  more  than  800  feet  deep  the 
cost  per  cubic  yard  may  reach  $10.00. 

311.  What  is  the   cost   of  sinking  a  shaft 
through  shale  and  sandstone  ? 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  a  shaft  sunk 

through  shale  and  soft  sandstone  would  cost, 

on  an  average,  from  $2.00  to  $5.00  per  cubic 

yard  for  shafts  from  500  to  800  feet  in  depth. 

103 


CHAPTER  NINE 

OPERATING 

812.  How  many  men  are  employed  in  operat- 
ing the  coal  mines  of  the  United  States  ? 

The  production  of  coal  in  the  United  States 
at  present  requires  about  500,000  men,  who 
are  employed  in  operating  the  mines. 

313.  How  are  these  divided  between  the  An- 
thracite and  the  Bituminous  mines? 

Of  this  number  150,000  are  employed  in 
the  production  of  Anthracite,  while  the 
remaining  350,000  are  scattered  over  the 
other  coal-producing  States,  engaged  in  the 
mining  of  the  various  Bituminous  fuels. 

314-  Are  women  and  children  employed  in 
the  coal  mines  ? 

Such  was  the  case  in  England  and  France 
for  years;  and  in  Scotland,  within  the  past 
fifty  years,  women  and  children  were  em- 
ployed to  carry  coals  on  their  backs  from  the 
mines  to  the  surface.  Now,  women  no  longer 


Coal  Catechism 


work  in  the  mines  in  England  or  France,  but 
are  still  so  employed  in  Belgium.  In  the 
United  States,  women  have  never  worked  in 
the  mines,  and  the  employment  of  children 
under -ground  is,  in  most  of  the  coal  States, 
prohibited  by  law. 

315.  How   were    the   earlier  mines  of   ihe 
United  States  operated  ? 

The  early  coal  tonnages  in  the  United 
States  were  produced  by  very  crude  and 
simple  methods.  When  the  coal  outcropped 
on  the  hillside  it  was  dug  out  with  pick  and 
shovel,  or,  if  shafting  was  necessary,  a  rude 
crank  and  windlass  was  all  the  machinery 
used. 

316.  How  do  we  operate  now  ? 

To-day  the  "main  entry"  in  a  coal-mine 
is  laid  out  with  the  precision  of  a  main  ave- 
nue in  one  of  our  cities  by  competent  tech- 
nical experts,  and  from  it  at  right  angles  are 
driven  the  "headings"  like  so  many  cross 
streets,  lined  on  each  side  with  the  "rooms" 
or  daily  workshops  of  the  miners. 
105 


Coal  Catechism 


817.  How  much  coal  can  a  miner  produce  in 
a  day? 

A  miner  can  produce  from  5  to  8  tons  of 
coal  daily  depending  upon  the  thickness  of 
the  seam,  the  nature  of  the  roof,  the  condi- 
tion of  the  mines,  and  various  other  circum- 
stances, such  as  water,  gas,  etc. 

318.  What  are  the  tools  used  by  a  Bituminous 
pick-miner  ? 

His  tools  consist  of  several  picks,  a  shovel, 
an  auger,  tamping-bar  and  needle,  a  small 
hat  lamp  and  can  of  oil,  and  also  a  can  of 
powder. 

319.  How  does  he  mine  the  coal  ? 

With  his  pick  he  digs  away  a  space  at  the 
bottom  of  the  seam,  to  accomplish  which  he 
must  lie  down  on  the  floor  of  the  mine  while 
he  works  his  arms,  "  undercutting  "  the  coal. 
This  undercut  slopes  gradually  downward, 
until  he  has  undermined  a  space  clear  across 
the  room,  as  far  as  he  can  reach  under  the 
coal  with  his  pick.  This  done,  he  takes  his 
long  crank  auger,  places  a  small  piece  of 
106 


Coal  Catechism 


board  across  his  breast  against  which  to  rest 
the  end  of  the  crank,  and  bores  a  hole  into 
the  top  of  the  coal  at  an  upward  angle,  taking 
care  not  to  bore  deeper  than  the  undercut. 
Next  he  makes  a  cartridge  by  wrapping  a 
piece  of  paper  about  a  round  stick  the  size 
of  a  broom-handle,  which  he  withdraws,  and 
the  paper  shell  thus  made  is  filled  with  blast- 
ing-powder according  to  the  desired  size, 
usually  six  or  seven  inches  in  length.  The 
cartridge  is  then  stuck  on  the  point  of  the 
tamping  needle  (which  is  a  slender  pointed 
rod  of  iron,  five  or  six  feet  long)  and  forced 
into  the  hole  with  the  tamping-bar,  which  is 
a  heavy  iron  rod,  with  a  head  at  one  end 
through  which  a  groove  runs  to  fit  the  needle. 
The  miner  then  tamps  in  the  cartridge  with 
damp  coal-dust  as  solidly  as  possible.  The 
needle  is  then  withdrawn,  leaving  a  round 
hole  leading  to  the  powder  in  the  cartridge. 
A  lighted  squib  is  thrust  into  the  hole,  and 
the  miner  seeks  a  place  of  safety.  The  squib 
is  about  the  size  of  a  slate-pencil,  and  the 
moment  it  begins  to  burn  it  rushes  forward 
to  the  powder,  which  it  explodes,  blasting 
down  the  coal. 

107 


Coal  Catechism 


320.  How  much  coal  will  a  blast  dislodge  ? 
A  single  shot  will  sometimes  dislodge  a  ton 

or  two  of  coal,  while  often  it  has  no  effect  at 
all,  and  the  work  must  be  done  over  j  this  is 
called  a  "  blind  shot." 

321.  What  is  done  with  the  coal  after  blast- 
ing ? 

When  the  coal  is  knocked  down,  the  miner 
carefully  examines  and  shovels  it  into  a  small 
mine  car,  holding  from  one  to  two  tons, 
which  he  shoves  from  his  room  to  the  head- 
ing j  there  the  drivers  attach  the  mules, 
couple  the  cars  together  in  strings  and  haul 
them  to  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  or,  if  a  drift 
working,  out  of  the  mine  to  the  colliery  or 
tipple,  where  the  coal  is  dumped  into  the 
large  railroad  cars,  in  which  it  is  shipped  to 
the  consumer. 

322.  How  is  a  miner  paid  for  his  work  ? 

In  this  country  a  miner  is  always  paid 
by  the  ton  or  wagon.  He  does  the  work  by 
contract,  furnishes  his  own  tools  and  material, 
and,  of  course,  must  keep  them  in  order.  His 
contract  is  to  blast  down  the  coal,  put  it  in 
the  mine  cars,  and  push  the  cars  from  his 
108 


Coal  Catechism 


room  to  the  entry.     All  other  work  is  paid 
for  by  the  operator. 

323.  What  other  work  is  there  to  do  ? 

The  main  headings  must  be  timbered  and 
ditched,  iron  or  steel  rails  must  be  laid  for 
the  mine  cars,  room  must  be  made  for  the 
mules  to  walk ;  and  for  this  purpose  the 
"  bottom "  of  hard  fire-clay  must  be  taken 
up,  or  the  "roof"  of  harder  rock  must  be 
taken  down,  air  courses  must  be  driven,  and 
rooms  turned  or  opened  and  ventilation  pro- 
vided. All  this  is  called  "dead  work,"  and 
is  paid  for  by  the  yard  or  day's  work  by  the 
operator. 

324.  What  other  expenses  are  paid  by  the 
operator  ? 

The  operator  must  also  purchase  the  land 
on  which  the  seam  is  located,  or  pay  a  roy- 
alty per  ton  to  the  land-owner.  He  must  pay 
all  the  expenses  of  opening  the  seam,  and  for 
all  the  buildings,  cars,  mules,  and  machinery 
necessary  for  conveying  the  coal  from  the 
main  entry  underground  to  the  consumer. 
When  the  miner  conveys  the  coal  to  the  main 
entry  he  is  done  with  it. 
109 


Coal  Catechism 


825.  What  is  the  most   necessary   thing   to 
consider  in  working  a  mine  ? 

Ventilation,  by  which  is  meant  a  proper 
supply  of  air  from  the  surface  to  the  miners 
underground. 

826.  Why  is  the  air  in  the  mines  not  suffi- 
cient for  this  purpose  ? 

The  air  in  a  mine  is  never  the  same  natu- 
rally as  that  on  the  surface,  owing  to  the  ad- 
mixture of  certain  gases  which  issue  from 
the  coal  and  rock  as  the  work  progresses. 

327.  How  is  air  admitted  to  the  mines  nat- 
urally ? 

In  the  mines  a  natural  current  of  air  passes 
down  the  slope  or  shaft,  or  into  the  drift  mouth, 
and  thence  along  the  various  entries  and 
cross-cuts,  as  water  is  conveyed  through 
pipes,  sometimes  sluggishly  and  then  more 
rapidly,  according  to  the  energy  applied  in 
its  transmission  from  the  surface.  In  nat- 
ural ventilation  this  energy  is  nothing  more 
nor  less  than  the  difference  in  temperature 
between  the  surface  and  the  interior  of  the 
mines. 

110 


Coal  Catechism 


328.  How  does  this  difference  in  temperature 
produce  a  movement  of  the  air  underground  ? 

All  gases,  including  the  air,  which  is  a 
mixture  of  gases,  expand  as  they  become 
heated,  and  become  lighter  as  they  grow 
warmer.  If,  therefore,  we  have  a  tempera- 
ture high  on  the  surface  and  low  underground, 
or  vice  versa,  the  tendency  of  the  warm  air 
is  to  rise,  being  lighter,  and  of  the  cold  air 
to  displace  it,  being  heavier.  This  action  on 
the  surface  we  call  "wind,"  but  underground 
it  is  called  an  "air  current."  In  the  ex- 
tremes of  summer  and  winter  seasons  we 
have  a  difference  in  temperature  between  the 
air  in  the  workings  and  the  air  on  the  surface, 
sometimes  as  much  as  "50  or  60  degrees. 
These  differences  cause  a  lively  movement  of 
air  through  the  mines. 

3%9.    Is  natural  ventilation  sufficient  ? 

It  might  be,  if  there  were  no  other  influ- 
ences at  work  vitiating  the  air  of  mines,  such 
as  occluded  gases. 

330.    }\Hiat  are  occluded  gases  ? 

The  formation  of  coal  included  the  growth 
and  decay  of  vast  quantities  of  vegetable 
111 


Coal  Catechism 


matter,  covered  in  course  of  time  with  de- 
posits of  mud,  sand  and  gravel.  This  decay 
or  putrefaction,  continuing  under  the  heavy 
mass  of  covering,  produces  an  enormous 
amount  of  gases,  which,  having  no  means  of 
escape,  are  imprisoned  in  the  coal-seams, 
awaiting  the  miner's  pick  and  drill  to  set 
them  free. 

331.  Under  what  names  are  these  gases  com- 
monly known  ? 

These  gases  are  commonly  known  as 
"marsh-gas"  and  " fire-damp,"  and,  weigh- 
ing about  half  as  much  as  the  atmosphere, 
are  usually  found  in  the  holes  and  fissures  of 
the  mine  roof;  when  liberated  and  mixed 
with  a  certain  proportion  of  air  they  become 
dangerously  explosive. 


What  is  carbonic  oxide  gas  ? 
Carbonic  oxide  gas  is  the  result  of  imper- 
fect combustion.     It  is  often  called  "  white- 
damp,"  or  "  after-damp,"  because  it  is  al- 
ways present  in  the  mines  after  an  explosion 
from  fire-damp.     It  has  no  color,  taste,  or 
smell,  beyond  the  faint  fragrance  of  violets. 
112 


Coal  Catechism 


333.  Why  is  carbonic  oxide  gas  particularly 
dangerous? 

Unlike  other  gases,  its  proximity  cannot 
be  detected  by  the  ordinary  method  of  test- 
ing with  lamps,  and  only  one-half  of  one  per 
cent,  of  this  insidious  gas  in  the  atmosphere 
is  sufficient  to  cause  death — a  death  which 
conies  instantly  and  without  warning  of  any 
kind. 

334.  Where    can    carbonic    oxide    gas  be 
seen? 

It  can  be  seen  burning,  in  combination  with 
oxygen,  at  any  time  by  observing  the  little 
blue  flames  dancing  over  a  fire  of  red  hot 
coals. 

335.  What  is  carbonic  acid  gas? 
Carbonic  acid  gas  is  occluded  from  the  coal 

seam,  and  is  also  produced  by  the  miners7 
burning  lamps  and  the  exhalations  of  men 
and  mules  in  the  mines.  Being  heavier  than 
air,  it  is  always  found  in  a  layer  along  the 
floor. 

336.  Is  carbonic  acid  gas  dangerous  ? 

It  is  not  particularly  dangerous,  unless  the 
113 


Coal  Catechism 


warnings  of  its  presence  are  ignored  and  one 
should  deliberately  remain  in  it. 

337.  In  that  case  what  would  happen  ? 

In  that  case  one  would  die  of  suffocation, 
as  a  person  will  in  drowning.  For  this  reason 
it  is  called  "  choke-damp,"  because  it  chokes 
or  suffocates  its  victim. 

338.  How  is  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid 
gas  detected  ? 

The  presence  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the 
air  can  be  detected  by  the  waning  flame  of  a 
lamp.  If  a  lighted  lamp  is  plunged  into  the 
pure  gas  it  will  be  instantly  extinguished. 

339.  What  percentage  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
in  the  air  is  necessary  to  cause  death? 

It  is  not  known  what  percentage  of  this 
gas,  mixed  with  the  atmosphere,  is  necessary 
to  cause  death  ;  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  it  can 
be  present  in  the  air  we  breathe  without  seri- 
ous inconvenience,  beyond  a  dull  headache 
or  nausea ;  and  in  experiments  made  with 
animals  as  high  as  30  per  cent,  has  been  used 
without  causing  death.  This  gas  is  more 
frequently  found  in  old  workings. 
114 


Coal  Catechism 


340.  What  other  gas  is  generally  found  in  old 
workings  ? 

Sulphureted  hydrogen  is  another  gas  met 
with  in  old  workings. 

341 '•   How  is  its  presence  detected  ? 

The  disagreeable  smell  of  rotten  eggs  is 
sufficient  evidence,  in  the  mines,  of  its  prox- 
imity. 

342.  What  percentage  of  sulphureted  hydro- 
gen in  the  air  will  cause  death  ? 

About  3  per  cent,  of  this  gas  mixed  with 
the  atmosphere  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  cause 
death. 

343.  How  is  an  operator  to  prevent  the  con- 
tamination of  the  air  in  the  mines  ? 

An  operator  is  powerless  to  prevent  the  in- 
trusion of  gases  into  the  mines,  or  in  many 
cases  to  detect  their  presence.  All  that  he 
can  do  is  to  neutralize  their  ill  effects  by 
furnishing  a  generous  supply  of  pure  air  to 
the  mines  from  the  surface. 

344'    How  is  this  accomplished  ? 
We  accomplish  this  by  means  of  artificial 
115 


Coal  Catechism 


ventilation,  and  increasing  the  current  of  air 
passing  through  the  mines  by  means  of  a 
furnace  or  a  fan. 

345.  How  is  artificial  ventilation  produced 
with  a  furnace  ? 

The  operation  is  very  simple.  All  mines 
are  provided  with  a  shaft  sunk  from  the  sur- 
face to  the  entries  or  gangways  below,  called 
an  air  shaft ;  this  may  be  either  a  separate 
opening  or  part  of  the  main  hoisting  shaft 
partitioned  off  for  that  purpose.  A  fire  is 
maintained  near  the  bottom  of  the  air  shaft, 
and  the  heated  column  of  air  in  the  shaft, 
being  lighter,  rises  and,  the  outer  air  tak- 
ing its  place,  produces  the  necessary  ventila- 
tion through  the  various  rooms  in  the  mines. 

846.  Give  a  familiar  example  of  furnace 
ventilation  ? 

A  familiar  example  of  furnace  ventilation 
may  be  observed  in  any  dwelling  having  an 
open  fireplace,  the  chimney  corresponding 
to  the  air-shaft,  or  "  up- take,"  and  an  open 
door  in  the  hall-way  to  the  drift-mouth,  or 
other  mine  opening.  The  doors  of  the  vari- 
ous rooms  represent  fairly  well  the  "trap- 
116 


Coal  Catechism 


doors "  in  the  mines,  by  which  the  current 
of  air  is  "  stopped  off"  from  various  parts 
of  the  mines  as  desired. 

347.  How  is  artificial  ventilation  produced 
with  a  fan  ? 

By  this  method  a  current  of  air  is  forced 
down  the  air  shaft  and  into  the  workings  by 
the  rapid  revolutions  of  a  machine  run  by  an 
engine,  which  is  constructed  in  many  different 
patterns,  but  all  having  the  same  general  re- 
semblance to  a  paddle-wheel  or  propeller. 
Sometimes  the  operation  is  reversed,  the  ma- 
chinery being  so  arranged  as  to  exhaust  or 
draw  the  air  up  the  air  shaft,  and  with  it  the 
obnoxious  gases. 

3Jt8.  What  is  the  average  fatality  among  our 
miners  by  gas  explosions  and  otherwise  ? 

Statistics  show  that  for  every  100,000  tons 
of  coal  mined  in  our  country  one  poor  miner 
is  killed  by  accident. 


117 


CHAPTER  TEN 

HAULAGE 

349.  What  is  meant  by  the  term l  i  haulage  "  ? 
The  miner  having  filled  his  small  car  with 

coal  from  his  room  in  the  mines,  and  pulled 
or  pushed  it  into  the  main  entry,  his  contract 
is  finished,  and  the  operator  must  now  take 
the  car  and  haul  it  to  the  surface.  The  vari 
ous  methods  in  use  for  this  purpose  are  in- 
cluded in  the  general  term  of  haulage. 

350.  What  is  the  principal  thing  to  avoid  in 
haulage  ? 

The  most  important  thing  to  avoid  in  haul- 
age is  the  rehandling  of  the  coal, — that  is, 
from  one  car  into  another,  or  to  a  common 
receptacle  or  heap,  and  thence  again  into 
wagons  or  cars. 

351.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  avoid  rehand- 
ling ? 

Because  rehandling  can  be  done  only  with 
labor,  and  labor  is  expensive. 


Coal  Catechism 


352.  Is  this  the  only  objection  to  rehandling  ? 

The  expense  is  not  the  only  objection  to  re- 
handling.  Coal  is  friable  and  easily  broken, 
and  each  transfer  produces  slack,  and  de- 
teriorates the  quality  to  such  an  extent  that 
many  of  the  softer  coals  are  rendered  unmar- 
ketable. 

353.  How  was  haulage  done  in  the  old  times  ? 
In  the  old  times  the  coal  was  carried  from 

the  mines  to  the  surface  on  the  shoulders  of 
men  and  women. 

354-  What  system  of  haulage  followed  this 
in  use  ? 

This  was  followed  by  a  system  of  hauling 
in  which  small  sledges  or  wagons  were  pulled 
by  boys.  The  chain  used  for  hauling  the 
wagon  passed  between  the  boy's  legs,  and  was 
then  hooked  into  an  iron  ring  which  was  at- 
tached to  a  leather  belt  around  his  waist.  In 
this  manner  the  boys  pulled  the  wagons  along 
the  gangways,  using  both  hands  and  feet, 
like  four-footed  animals. 

355.   How  is  haulage  done  now  ? 
Since  the  introduction  of  horses  into  the 
119 


Coal  Catechism 


European  mines,  the  heavy  part  of  the  haul- 
ing is  done  by  them,  and  the  manual  labor  is 
confined  to  pulling  the  wagons  from  the  rooms 
to  the  main  gangway,  where  they  are  made 
up  into  trains  or  "trips"  and  hauled  to  the 
foot  of  the  shaft,  or,  in  the  case  of  drift 
mines,  to  the  surface,  by  horses.  This  is  the 
case  with  us  to-day,  excepting  that  we  gen- 
erally employ  mules  instead  of  horses. 

356.  Why  are  mules  preferred  to  horses  f 
In  the  darkness,  under  ground,  a  mule  is 
more  sure-footed  and  less  liable  to  stumble 
over  the  cross-ties  and  uneven  places  than  a 
horse.  A  mule  is  also  less  susceptible  to 
sickness  from  hardships  encountered  in  mine 
haulage,  such  as  water,  bad  air,  and  constant 
drafts  in  the  gangways.  In  certain  places 
small  mules  can  be  used  where,  from  his 
greater  size,  a  horse  could  not  enter. 

857.  What  notable  contrivance  followed  the 
introduction  of  horses  ? 

With  the  introduction  of  horses  into  the 
English  mines  came  also  the  iron  tramway, 
or  railway.  These  were  the  first  railways 
ever  built, 

120 


Coal  Catechism 


358.  How  were  they  constructed  f 

The  custom  was  to  lay  two  rails  of  timber, 
plated  with  iron,  exactly  straight  and  paral- 
lel, on  which  ran  heavy  wagons  drawn  by 
horses,  or,  in  situations  where  the  road  was 
inclined,  the  loaded  wagons  were  fitted  with 
brakes,  and  were  let  down  the  inclines  by 
gravity,  the  horses  pulling  them  back  when 
empty. 

359.  How  are  our  mine  roads  constructed  ? 

All.  of  our  mines  are  equipped  with  steel 
rails  of  the  T  pattern,  of  a  section  weighing 
from  16  to  40  pounds  per  yard,  and  are  laid 
to  a  guage  of  3  or  82  feet  apart  on  cross-tim- 
bers, called  "sills."  They  are  connected  at 
the  points  with  two  iron  straps,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  rail,  and  bolted  through  like 
splices.  These  straps  are  called  i  <  fish-  bars. '  • 

360.  Describe  a  mine  car  ? 

A  mine  car  is  a  small  four-wheeled  wagon, 
made  of  wood,  iron,  or  steel,  to  hold  from 
one  to  two  tons  of  coal.  They  are  made  in 
every  variety  of  style  and  shape, — some  with 
flaring  sides  and  others  with  straight  sides. 
121 


Coal  Catechism 


On  some  mine  cars  the  wheels  revolve  loosely 
on  a  fixed  axle,  as  in  an  ordinary  road 
wagon ;  on  others  the  wheels  are  fixed  to  the 
axles,  which  revolve  in  journal  boxes,  as  in  a 
steam  railroad  car.  The  usual  weight  of  a 
mine  car,  when  empty,  is  about  one  ton. 

361.  What  is  the  average  useful  effect  of  one 
mule  in  haulage  ? 

The  average  useful  effect  of  one  mule  has 
been  calculated  by  practice  at  from  20  to  50 
tons  hauled  one  mile  per  day.  On  roads  of 
average  grade  it  would  probably  be  about 
forty  tons.  If  the  car  weighs  one  ton  and 
carries  two  tons  of  coal,  the  useful  effect  in 
tons  of  coal  is  20  tons  hauled  one  mile  per  day 
by  each  mule. 

362.  How  do   the   mules  haul  a  "  trip  "  of 
cars  ? 

In  hauling  a  i  l  trip ' '  of  mine  cars  the  mules 
are  hitched  tandem, — one  ahead  of  the  other, 
three,  four,  or  five  together, — the  foremost 
mule,  carrying  a  small  miner's  lamp  attached 
to  its  head  or  hung  to  its  collar,  leading  the 
others  through  the  dark  mine  entries,  seldom 
122 


Coal  Catechism 


making  a  wrong  turn  or  misstep.     The  driver 
sits  on  the  front  car. 

363.  Are  locomotives  used  in  the  mines  ? 

Sometimes  small  mine  locomotives,  weigh- 
ing from  6  to  10  tons,  are  used  in  place  of 
mules  ;  but  they  can  be  worked  only  in  mines 
that  are  free  from  gases  and  where  there  is 
plenty  of  air  with  quick  ventilation.  The 
danger  from  fire  has  always  been  urged 
against  their  use. 

364.  What  other  modes  of  haulage  are  there 
by  locomotives  ? 

If  a  locomotive  is  used  the  objectionable 
fire-box  and  boiler  can  be  replaced  by  a  com- 
pressed air  receiver,  or  the  haulage  can  be 
done  by  electric  motors  similar  in  operation 
to  the  familiar  "  trolley  car." 

365.  How  can  haulage  be  done  mechanically 
without  locomotives  ? 

There  are  various  mechanical  devices  for 
hauling  coal.  The  most  common  in  use  are 
as  follows  : 

1st.  Self-acting  planes. 

2d.  Direct  haulage. 

123 


Coal  Catechism 


3d.  Tail-rope. 
4th.  Endless  chaiu. 

366.  Describe  a  u  self -acting  plane  "  ? 
Self-acting    planes    are    simply    inclined 

roads  of  sufficient  grade  for  the  loaded  mine 
cars — attached  to  one  end  of  a  rope — to  run 
by  gravity  down  hill  and  haul  up  the  same 
number  of  empty  cars,  which  are  fastened  to 
the  other  end  of  the  same  rope.  At  the  head 
of  the  incline,  or  at  the  top  of  the  hill,  a 
"  sheave, "  pulley-wheel,  or  drum  is  fixed, 
around  which  the  rope  is  wound. 

367.  What  is  "  direct  haulage  "  * 

Direct  haulage  is  a  mechanical  arrange- 
ment by  which  the  empty  wagons  running 
down  hill  into  the  workings  with  sufficient 
energy  to  pull  a  haulage-rope  in  with  them 
are  then  hauled  out  loaded. 

368.  Describe    the    "  tail-rope "  system    of 
haulage  ? 

A  tail-rope  is  used  where,  the  hill  or  in- 
cline not  being  sufficiently  steep,  there  is  not 
enough  energy  in  the  moving  empty  wagons 
124 


Coal  Catechism 


to  pull  in  the  haulage-rope.  In  this  case,  a 
second  or  tail-rope  of  smaller  diameter  is 
used  to  pull  the  empty  wagons  and  the  at- 
tached haulage-rope  into  the  workings. 

369.  How  is  the  "  endless  chain  "  operated  ? 

As  its  name  implies,  an  endless  chain 
passes  from  the  engine  along  one  side  of  the 
road  around  a  pulley  at  the  far  end  and  back 
again  on  the  other  side  of  the  road.  The 
empty  wagons  are  attached  to  one  side  of  the 
chain  by  various  kinds  of  clips  or  hooks,  and 
are  hauled  into  the  mine.  The  loaded  wagons 
are  attached  to  the  other  side  of  the  chain 
and  are  hauled  out  of  the  mine.  This  system 
is  also  called  the  u  endless  rope,"  when  a 
rope  is  used  instead  of  a  chain. 

370.  Owe  a  familiar  example  of  "  endless 
rope  "  haulage  ? 

A  familiar  example  of  this  system  could  be 
seen  some  years  ago  operating  the  cable  cars 
in  our  larger  cities,  the  rope  in  this  case 
being  under  the  roadway  instead  of  at  the 
side. 

125 


Coal  Catechism 


371.  After  the   coal   has  been  hauled  to  the 
bottom  of  a  shaft,  how  is  it  raised  to  the  sur- 
face f 

Many  inventions  were  tried  before  we  ar- 
rived at  our  present  perfection  in  hoisting 
coal  from  the  mines  by  means  of  great  wind- 
ing engines,  which  raise  and  lower  the  mine 
cars  with  certainty  and  precision. 

372.  How  was  "hoisting"   done  in  the  old 
times  ? 

The  oldest  form  of  lifting  coal  to  the  sur- 
face was  by  means  of  a  "  horse- whim."  This 
method  of  hoisting  was  employed  as  far  back 
as  the  Middle  Ages. 

373.  Describe  a  "  horse-whim  "  f 

It  consisted  essentially  of  a  wooden  frame- 
work over  the  shaft,  on  which  were  fixed  two 
wooden  rollers  or  pulleys.  From  one  of  these 
rollers  hung  a  rope,  to  the  end  of  which  was 
attached  the  loaded  corfe  or  basket  of  coal  ; 
the  rope  passed  over  this  roller  and  around 
an  upright  drum  with  three  or  four  turns  and 
thence  over  the  other  roller,  and  was  attached 
to  the  empty  corfe  or  basket.  When  the  up- 
126 


Coal  Catechism 


right  drum  was  made  to  revolve, — by  means 
of  an  extended  arm  to  which  was  hitched  a 
horse,— the  empty  basket  was  lowered  and 
the  loaded  one  was  raised  to  the  surface. 

374.  What  was  the  principal  objection  to 
this  mode  of  hoisting  ? 

The  loaded  basket  or  bucket,  ascending, 
swung  at  the  end  of  a  vibrating  rope,  sway- 
ing back  and  forth  in  its  passage  up  the  cir- 
cular well  or  shaft,  while  the  descending 
empty  basket  also  hung  loosely  suspended  at 
the  other  end  of  the  rope,  and  frequently 
they  came  together  in  the  middle  of  the  shaft 
with  disastrous  results. 

375.  How  was  this  danger  remedied  ? 

To  prevent  this  danger,  the  shafts  were 
made  square  and  fitted  with  cages  having 
conductors  at  the  sides.  Upon  these  cages 
the  loaded  mine  cars  are  wheeled  and  raised 
bodily,  with  their  contents,  to  the  surface, 
the  empty  car  in  its  opposite  cage  descend- 
ing simultaneously  and  without  the  possi- 
bility of  a  collision. 

127 


Coal  Catechism 


376.  Give  a  familiar  example  of  a  modern 
hoisting  apparatus  f 

An  every-day  example  of  this  invention 
can  be  observed  in  its  highest  state  of  per- 
fection in  the  passenger  " elevators"  of  our 
hotels  and  tall  office  buildings.  The  speed 
at  which  these  hoists  are  run  was  never  con- 
sidered possible  by  the  engineers  of  the 
olden  time. 


128 


CHAPTEE  ELEVEN 

PREPARATION 

377.  How  is  coal  weighed  at  the  mines  ? 

In  drift  mining,  when  the  coal  has  been 
hauled  to  the  surface  by  mules  or,  through  a 
shaft,  slope,  tunnel,  or  otherwise,  by  machin- 
ery to  an  elevated  platform  called  a  u  tipple," 
the  car  and  its  contents  are  carefully  weighed 
on  a  platform  scales  by  a  "  weigh-boss." 

378.  What  is  a  check-weighman  ? 

A  check-weighman  is  a  man  chosen  by  the 
miners  and  in  their  employ,  receiving  for  his 
compensation  one  or  two  cents  per  ton  on  all 
coal  mined  and  weighed  over  the  scales.  It 
is  his  business  to  see  that  the  miners  receive 
due  credit  for  all  the  coal  that  they  send  out, 
and  for  this  purpose  he  assists  or  checks  the 
weigh-boss  at  the  scales. 

379.  How  does  the  weigh-boss  know  whom  to 
credit  with  each  car  of  coal  ? 

To  facilitate  the  matter,  each  miner,  or 
sometimes  two  or  three  miners,  will  "  work  a 


Coal  Catechism 


number," — that  is,  a  number, — 1,  2,  3,  4, 
etc. — is  given  them,  and  all  coal  sent  out  on 
each  number  is  so  credited  in  the  scale-house. 

380.  How  is  this  arranged  ? 

The  number  given  to  each  miner  is  branded 
on  small  pieces  of  wood,  or  is  stamped  on 
small  brass  checks,  like  baggage  checks  ; 
these  the  miners  get  at  the  scale-house  every 
morning  and  take  them  into  the  mines ; 
when  a  wagon  is  loaded,  the  miner  sticks  the 
numbered  bit  of  wood  into  an  iron  staple 
placed  on  the  side  of  the  mine  car,  or  hangs 
the  brass  check  on  a  hook  provided  for  the 
purpose.  When  the  car  reaches  the  scales, 
the  weigh-boss  or  check-weighman  removes 
the  bit  of  wood  or  brass,  and  credits  the  coal 
on  a  tally-sheet  to  the  number  he  finds  upon 
it.  This  tally-sheet  is  hung  up  in  the  scale- 
house,  and  the  numbered  checks  are  carefully 
piled  in  little  heaps  for  the  inspection  of  the 
miners  in  the  evening. 

381.  After  the  coal  has  been  weighed,  what 
becomes  of  it  ? 

After  the  coal  has  been  weighed,  the  mine 
car  is  pushed  to  the  "  tipple,"  and  its  con- 
130 


Coal  Catechism 


tents  tipped  over  into  the  large  railroad  car 
which  stands  on  the  siding  underneath  the 
platform.  The  dumping  of  the  contents  of 
the  mine  car  is  easily  done  by  means  of  a 
swinging  gate  on  the  end,  held  in  place  by  a 
catch ;  when  this  catch  is  raised  the  gate 
swings  open  and  allows  the  coal  to  fall  into 
a  chute,  and  thence  into  the  railroad  car 
below. 

382.  Is  this  simple  form  of  loading  suited 
to  all  kinds  of  coal  ? 

This  method  of  loading  is  suited  only  for 
shipments  of  coal  which  have  had  no  prep- 
aration, or  what  is  called  "  run  of  mine." 

883.    What  coals  are  shipped  in  this  way  ? 

The  semi -Bituminous  coals  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Maryland  and  Virginia,  including  the 
Clearfield,  Cumberland,  and  Flat  Top,  the 
Puuxsutawney,  Blossburg,  and  Alleghany 
coals,  and  many  others  used  for  steaming  and 
smithing. 

384'   How  is  Bituminous,  coal  "  prepared  "  ? 
It  happens  with  Bituminous  or  gas  coals 
that  the  customer  requires  a  more  clean  and 
131 


Coal  Catechism 


lumpy  coal  than  "run  of  mine,"  in  which 
case  it  is  necessary  to  have  it  screened.  Coal 
so  prepared  is  known  in  the  market  as 
"lump,"  "three-quarter,"  "nut,"  and 
"slack." 

385.  How  is  lump  coal  prepared  f 
This  is  done  by  putting  into  the  bottom  of 
the  chute  long  iron  bars,  set  an  inch  and  a 
half  apart,  in  place  of  the  solid  iron  plates, 
thus  making  a  screen  15  to  18  feet  long. 
When  the  coal  is  dumped  from  the  mine 
cars  directly  on  these  bars,  the  fine  coal  falls 
through  the  openings,  and  the  lumps  pass 
down  over  the  bars  into  an  iron  platform 
suspended  from  the  scales,  where  it  is 
weighed  and  then  loaded  into  the  railroad 
car  beneath  ;  this  is  called  "lump  "  coal. 

886.     What  is  "nut"  coal? 

The  coal  which  has  dropped  between  the 
bars  set  an  inch  and  a  half  apart  is  caught  on 
a  second  set  of  irons,  which  are  placed  only 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  apart,  and  while  the 
finer  coal  drops  between  these  bars,  the  lumps 
pass  down  over  them.  The  coal  passing  over 
the  bars  is  caught  and  weighed,  and  then 
132 


Coal  Catechism 


loaded  into  the  railroad  car  beneath.     This 
is  called  "nut"  coal. 

887.    What  is  "  slack  "  coal  ? 

In  the  operation  described  in  the  previous 
answer  for  making  nut  coal,  the  fine  coal 
which  passes  between  or  through  the  bars  set 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  apart  is  called 
"slack"  coal. 

388.  What  is  "  three-quarter  "  coal  ? 
Three-quarter  coal  is  simply  a  mixture  of 

"lump"  and  "nut." 

389.  How  are  the  miners  paid  for  coals  thus 
prepared  ? 

In  fixing  the  rate  to  be  paid  the  miners  for 
this  kind  of  coal,  a  price  is  made  only  on  the 
coal  that  passes  over  the  screens,  and  is 
therefore  proportionately  higher  per  ton  than 
the  rate  paid  for  mining  the  semi-Bituminous 
coals,  where  run  of  mine  is  shipped  entirely. 

390.  How  are    the   different  sizes  of   coal 
loaded  into  railroad  cars  ? 

The  railroad  tracks  underneath  the  tipple 
are  arranged  so  that  the  railroad  cars  in- 
tended for  the  different  kinds  of  coal  can  be 
133 


Coal  Catechism 


loaded  by  " dropping  them,  down"  a  slight 
grade,  one  by  one,  into  the  proper  position, 
a  locomotive  having  first  pushed  the  required 
number  of  empty  cars  to  the  head  of  the  grade 
above  the  tipple. 

391.  How  is  coal  loaded  into  river  boats  f 
Where  river  transportation  is  available, 

the  tipples  are  made  to  facilitate  the  loading 
of  the  coal  directly  into  the  barges  or  boats, 
which  are  towed  into  position  under  the  over- 
hanging chute,  and  are  then  sent  down  the 
river,  whole  fleets  of  them,  as  on  the  Monon- 
gahela  Eiver,  near  Pittsburg,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, towed  by  large,  flat-bottomed  steam- 
boats. 

392.  What  preparation  is  necessary  for  An- 
thracite coal  ? 

Anthracite  coal,  after  being  raised  to  the 
surface,  is  prepared  for  the  market  with  more 
thoroughness  than  either  the  Bituminous  or 
semi-Bituminous  coals.  It  is  necessary  that 
it  be  broken  into  various  sizes,  and  that  all 
slate,  dirt,  fine  coal,  and  impurities  be  care- 
fully removed  before  it  is  shipped. 
134 


Coal  Catechism 


393.  How  is  this  done  ? 

This  is  done  by  erecting  a  large  structure 
called  a  "  breaker. "  Through  this  building 
passes  the  coal,  where  it  is  screened  over 
bars,  then  hand-picked,  crushed  between 
rollers,  run  through  separating  cylindrical 
screens  and  chutes  for  another  picking,  and 
sometimes  is  washed  in  running  water. 

394.  How  is  the  coal  made  to  pass  through 
the  breaker  ? 

To  accomplish  this,  the  loaded  mine  cars 
are  hoisted  to  the  top  of  the  breaker,  some- 
times 150  feet  high,  where  they  are  emptied, 
and  the  coal  finds  its  way  by  gravity  through 
inclined  troughs  and  over  screens  to  the  rail- 
road car  beneath. 

395.  Describe  the  process  of  preparing  An- 
thracite coal  ? 

When  a  mine  car  comes  from  the  mine,  it 
goes  directly  to  the  dump,  and  the  coal  is 
dumped  upon  a  set  of  inclined  bars  or  into  a 
chute  or  pocket,  from  which  it  is  slowly  fed 
under  a  gate  and  allowed  to  slide  down  over 
the  bars.  These  bars  are  placed  from  three 
135 


Coal  Catechism 


to  six  inches  apart,  and  separate  the  coal  into 
two  portions  that  are  to  be  separately  treated. 
The  portion  passing  through  the  bars  is  con- 
veyed to  a  screen  which  separates  the  fine 
coal,  called  "pea,"  "  buck  wheat,"  etc.  This 
screen  is  called  a  "dirt"  or  " mud- screen." 

The  " broken"  and  "egg"  sizes  coming 
from  the  mud-screen  are  picked  free  from 
slate  and  sent  direct  to  the  pockets  for  ship- 
ment, or  sent  to  the  " pony-rolls"  or  "mon- 
key-rolls" to  be  broken  down  into  "stove" 
and  "  nut "  sizes.  That  portion  passing  over 
the  main  screen-bars  runs  out  upon  the 
"platform,"  which  is  a  flat  or  slightly  in- 
clined floor  covered  with  iron  plates,  and  is 
cleaned  by  the  platform  men.  The  slate  and 
rock  are  picked  out  and  sent  down  the  rock 
chute,  the  good  "lump"  coal  goes  to  the 
lump  chute,  and  the  "rough"  coal  to  the 
"crusher  rolls,"  to  be  crushed  and  again 
screened  and  separated  into  domestic  sizes. 

896,  Into  what  sizes  is  Anthracite  coal  pre- 
pared ? 

Anthracite  coal  is  generally  prepared  as 
follows : 

136 


Coal  Catechism 


Lump  .    .    .      over  bars  about  7  inches  apart. 

Steamboat      /  through  bars  about  7  inches  apart. 
'  \  over  bars  about  5  inches  apart. 

Broken  -i  tlirougn  a  mesn  3£  inches  apart. 

|  over  a  mesh  2f  inches  apart. 

E  f  through  a  mesh  2f  inches. 

'  \  over  a  mesh  2  inches. 

J  through  a  mesh  2  inches. 
'  ]  over  a  mesh  1£  inches, 
f  through  a  mesh  l£  inches. 
\  over  a  mesh  f  inch, 
p  f  through  a  mesh  f  inch. 

'  \  over  a  mesh  \  inch. 

Buckwheat, 

397:  In  what  other  manner  is  coal  prepared 
for  the  consumer  ? 

For  the  utilization  of  very  small  coal, 
several  processes  have  "been  invented,  by 
which  the  fine  coal,  or  slack,  is  reduced  to 
powder  and  burned  in  that  form,  or  is  made 
into  briquettes  by  pressure  or  otherwise. 

398.  Describe  the  Wegener  apparatus  for 
burning  powdered  coal  ? 

The  Wegener    apparatus    is    exceedingly 

simple.     Coal,   ground    to    pass    through  a 

sieve  of  60  meshes  to  the  linear  inch,   is 

tipped  into  a  hopper  at  the  top,  whence  it 

137 


Coal  Catechism 


falls  upon  a  grating,  by  which  it  is  retained. 
This  grating  is  subject  to  a  continual  knock- 
ing action,  which  keeps  the  coal-dust  falling 
through  it  in  a  cloud.  The  knocking  is  done 
by  a  wheel  with  vanes  in  it ;  the  air  enters 
here  under  the  influence  of  the  chimney 
draught,  and  passing  through  the  wheel, 
puts  it  in  rotation.  The  shaft  of  the  wheel 
is  continued  upward  to  the  grating,  where  it 
operates  the  knocker  150  to  250  times  a  min- 
ute. The  strength  of  the  knock,  and  conse- 
quently the  amount  of  coal  passing,  can  be 
varied  by  means  of  a  screw  and  a  spring. 
The  coal-dust  in  falling  meets  a  rising  air- 
current,  and  both  are  diverted  through  a  side 
pipe  into  the  furnace,  the  interior  of  which 
is  lined  with  fire-brick  for  a  length  of  10  or 
12  feet,  and  has,  in  addition,  two  fire-brick 
bridges.  There  is  no  grate,  and  there  are 
no  fire-doors,  the  combustion  being  watched 
through  peep-holes.  The  cost  of  preparing 
a  ton  of  coal  by  grinding  to  powder  is  about 
25  cents. 

399.   How  is  coal  made  into  briquettes  ? 
The  most  common  way  is  first  to  dry  the 
138 


Coal  Catechism 


fine  coal-dirt  carefully,  and  then  mix  it  with 
a  very  small  quantity  of  pitch ;  a  machine, 
by  pressure,  forms  the  pasty  mixture  into 
briquettes,  from  the  size  of  an  ordinary  brick 
down  to  a  ball  the  size  of  an  egg. 


139 


CHAPTER  TWELVE 

WATER    TRANSPORTATION 

400.  What  is  meant  by  water  transportation 
of  coal  f 

As  the  term  implies,  the  carrying  of  coal 
from  one  place  to  another  by  means  of  boats, 
arks,  or  other  vessels  floated  on  the  surface 
of  the  rivers,  canals,  or  any  body  of  water. 

401.  What  was  the   first  system  of  water 
transportation  in  use  in  this  country  ? 

The  first  transportation  of  coal  by  water 
was  done  by  means  of  wooden  arks,  which 
were  loaded  with  coal  at  the  mines,  and  then 
floated  down  stream  with  the  current  of  the 
river. 

402.  What  were  the  objections  to  this  system 
of  transportation  ? 

The  river-beds  were  shallow  and  full  of 
rocks,  so  that  the  arks  laden  with  coal  were 
frequently  wrecked,  and  then  it  was  found 
that  the  descent  of  a  river  was  as  nothing 
when  compared  with  the  labor  of  returning 
up  the  stream. 


Coal  Catechism 


403.  How  were  these  objections  met  ? 

A  system  by  which  boats  could  move  in 
any  desired  direction  with  safety  was  intro- 
duced in  the  shape  of  numerous  costly  canals, 
which  were  built  in  different  parts  of  our 
country. 

404.  How  were  the  rivers  rendered  navigable 
up-stream  as  well  as  down  ? 

By  the  introduction  of  steam,  which 
changed  the  whole  condition  of  river  traffic  ; 
under  its  powerful  impulse  steamboats  were 
soon  plying  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
Eivers,  both  up-stream  and  down. 

4Q5.   About  what  time  did  this  occur  ? 

In  1811  the  Enterprise,  a  keel  boat  made 
at  Marietta,  but  fitted  up  at  Pittsburg  with 
an  engine  and  a  stern-wheel,  under  an  ar- 
rangement with  Eobert  Fulton,  left  Pittsburg 
on  its  trial  trip,  and  afterward  ran  between 
New  Orleans  and  Natchez  until  1814,  when 
it  was  wrecked. 

408.  What  was  the  size  of  the  Enter- 
prize  ? 

The  Enterprise  was  between  300  and  400 
tons'  burden,  and  cost  $40,000. 
141 


Coal  Catechism 


407.  Who  of  our  foremost  Americans  first 
advocated  the  building  of  canals  ? 

Washington,  we  are  told,  took  a  deep  in- 
terest in  the  construction  of  canals,  and 
largely  through  his  instrumentality  a  charter 
was  obtained  from  the  States  of  Virginia  and 
Maryland,  and  also  valuable  grants  of  laud 
and  money,  for  the  purpose  of  building  the 
Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Canal,  connecting  the 
waters  of  the  Chesapeake  and  the  Ohio  Eiver. 
Of  this  company  Washington  was  the  first 
president. 

408.  When  was  this  canal  built  ? 

Work  on  it  was  commenced  in  1828,  and 
in  1850  it  was  completed  for  a  length  of  180 
miles  of  the  line,  leading  from  Cumberland, 
Md.,  to  Georgetown,  D.  C.  It  is  still  used 
for  the  transportation  of  Cumberland  coal. 

409.  For  what  purpose  was  the  Union  Canal 
projected  ? 

The  Union  Canal  was  intended  to  improve 
the  navigation  of  the  Schuylkill  Eiver,  but 
afterward  was  made  part  of  a  project  for 
uniting  the  waters  of  the  Susquehanna  and 
Schuylkill  Kivers. 

142 


Coal  Catechism 


410.  When  was  it  first  proposed? 

The  scheme  was  first  proposed  in  1760,  but 
nothing  was  done  until  30  years  later,  in  1790, 
when  a  company  was  formed  with  $400,000 
capital,  under  the  name  of  Schuylkill  &  Sus- 
quehanna  Navigation  Co. 

411.  W  hat  other  canal  scheme  formed  part 
of  the  Union  Canal  system  ? 

A  canal  was  projected  at  the  same  time 
connecting  the  waters  of  the  Delaware  and 
Schuylkill  Eivers,  so  that  produce  coming 
down  the  latter  from  the  West  could  be  car- 
ried over  and  landed  at  the  wharves  of  the 
merchants  of  Philadelphia. 

412.  What  was  the  name  of  this  company  ? 
It  was  called  the  Delaware  &  Schuylkill 

Canal  Co.,  and  was  chartered  in  1792,  with  a 
capital  of  $400,000. 

413.  What   famous   American  was  at  the 
head  of  these  organizations  ? 

Robert  Morris,  the  famous  financier  of  the 
Revolution,  was  made  president,  and  was  at 
the  head  of  the  organizations. 
143 


Coal  Catechism 


414'    Was  the  company  successful  ? 

Unfortunately,  they  were  overwhelmed 
with  disaster,  and  were  compelled  to  suspend 
operations  after  an  outlay  of  $440,000,  an  im- 
mense sum  in  those  days. 

415.  What  became  of  the  projected  canals  ? 

In  1811  the  Legislature  passed  an  act  to  in- 
corporate the  "  Union  Canal  Company  of 
Pennsylvania,"  which  new  company  was  a 
union  of  the  old  "Schuylkill  &  Susque- 
hanna"  and  the  "  Delaware  &  Schuylkill " 
Canal  Companies.  The  old  companies  were 
dissolved  and  a  new  company  formed  of  the 
stockholders  of  the  old  corporations,  whose 
relative  rights  were  adjusted  in  the  new  dis- 
tribution of  the  capital. 

416.  How  were  funds  provided  to  continue 
operations  ? 

The  mode  of  raising  funds  to  continue  op- 
erations on  the  Union  Canal  was  furnished 
by  the  passage  of  an  act  in  1819  authorizing 
a  lottery  or  series  of  lotteries,  and  giving  the 
company  a  monopoly  of  the  right  of  conduct- 
ing lotteries  in  Pennsylvania.  The  State  was 
144 


Coal  Catechism 


also  pledged  to  pay  any  deficiency  of  interest, 
up  to  6  per  cent.,  which  the  lotteries  could 
not  produce. 

417.  Was  this  mode  of  financiering  peculiar 
to  Pennsylvania  ? 

It  was  not.  It  seems  to  have  been  a  fa- 
vorite resource  with  other  States  for  the  ac- 
complishment of  similar  schemes,  notably  in 
New  York,  Virginia,  Connecticut,  Ehode 
Island,  Delaware,  Maryland,  and  North  Car- 
olina. Pennsylvania,  however,  at  that  time 
was  considered  the  great  mart  for  nearly  all 
the  lotteries  of  the  United  States. 

418.  When  was  the  Union  Canal  finished  ? 
Work  on  the  Union  Canal  was  resumed  in 

1821  and  finished  in  1827,  thirty-seven  years 
after  the  commencement  of  construction  and 
sixty-five  years  after  the  first  survey. 

419.  Describe  the  route  of  the  Union  Canal  f 
The  Union  Canal  was  nearly  80  miles  long, 

from  Middletown,  on  the  Susquehanna  Eiver, 
to  a  point  on  the  Schuylkill  Eiver,  a  short 
distance  below  Eeading,  and  was  adapted  to 
the  use  of  boats  of  25  to  30  tons'  burden. 
145 


Coal  Catechism 


At  Middletown  it  was  connected  with  the 
Pennsylvania  Canal,  leading  by  various  con- 
nections to  Pittsburg  and  Erie,  to  Tioga  in 
the  north,  and  to  the  Bald  Eagle  on  the  West 
Branch  of  the  Susquehanna.  At  Beading  it 
was  connected  with  the  works  of  the  Schuyl- 
kill  Navigation  Co.  leading  to  Philadelphia. 

420.  What  was  the  cost  of  the  Union  Canal  ? 
In  1828  the  cost  of  the  Union  Canal  was 

estimated  at  $1,600,000. 

421.  Name  some  of  the  other  famous  canals 
built  for  coal  transportation  ? 

Of  the  other  famous  canals  built  for  that 
purpose,  there  were  the  Delaware  &  Hudson, 
the  Erie  in  New  York,  and  the  Delaware  & 
Baritan  in  New  Jersey. 

422.  What  was  the  cost  of  transporting  coal 
by  canal  f 

In  1838  the  cost  of  transporting  Cumberland 
coal  from  the  mines  to  tidewater,  Georgetown, 
D.  0.,  by  canal,  was  about  $4.00  per  ton. 

428.    What  was  the  cost  of  mining  the  coal? 
In  the  same  year  the  cost  of  mining  Cum- 
berland coal  was  put  at  $1.00  per  ton. 
146 


Coal  Catechism 


424.    What  was  the  price  at  tidewater  ? 

In  those  times  the  price  obtained  for  Cum- 
berland coal  f.  o.  b.  in  Baltimore  was  $6.00 
per  ton,  and  of  Allegheny  coal  in  Philadel- 
phia, $7.00  per  ton. 

J$5.  At  what  price  are  these  coals  sold  to- 
day? 

The  ordinary  price  for  these  coals,  trans- 
ported from  the  mines  to  tidewater  by  rail- 
road, would  be  at  present  $2. 75  per  ton  for 
Cumberland  coal  at  Baltimore,  and  $2.50  for 
Clearfield  coal  at  Philadelphia. 

426.  When  loas  the  Schuylkill  Navigation 
Canal  built  ? 

In  1817  work  was  commenced  on  the  canal 
of  the  Schuylkill  Navigation  Co.,  but  it  was 
not  until  1825  that  Anthracite  coal  began  to 
form  the  principal  part  of  its  tonnage. 

427.  How  was  Lehigh  Anthracite  coal  first 
transported  by  canal  ? 

Lehigh  Anthracite  coal  found  its  way  to 
market  by  means  of  the  canal  of  the  Lehigh 
Navigation  Co.,  and  the  lateral  channels,  the 
Morris  Canal  and  the  Delaware  &  Earitan 
Canal. 

147 


Coal  Catechism 


428.  How  did  the  Lackawanna  coals  reach 
the  market  ? 

In  those  early  days  of  canal  navigation  the 
coals  of  the  Lackawanna  region  were  trans- 
ported to  New  York,  by  rail  18  miles,  thence 
by  the  Delaware  &  Hudson  Canal,  108  miles, 
and  then  by  river  navigation  91  miles,  or  a 
total  of  217  miles. 

429.  What  is  the  route  of  the  Delaware  & 
Hudson  Canal  ? 

From  Honesdale,  on  the  Lackawaxen  Eiver 
in  Pennsylvania,  to  Eondout,  on  the  Hudson 
Eiver,  New  York.  This  line  was  abandoned 
in  1899. 

430.  How   was  the  coal  transported  on  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi  Eiver s  ? 

Until  1850  all  the  coal  shipped  westward 
from  Pittsburg  was  floated  down  the  Ohio 
Eiver  in  large  flat-bottomed  boats  with  the 
spring  and  fall  freshets,  each  boat  holding 
about  15,000  bushels.  The  boats  were  usu- 
ally lashed  in  pairs,  and  were  sold  and  broken 
up  when  their  destination  was  reached.  In 
1850  steam  tugs  were  introduced  on  the 
rivers. 

148 


CHAPTEE  THIETEEN 

ANTHRACITE  BAIL  SHIPMENTS 

431.  What  advantage  has  a  railroad  over  a 
canal  for  coal  shipments  ? 

Besides  that  of  quicker  despatch,  railroads 
are  advantageous  in  districts  where  canals, 
for  want  of  water,  would  be  impracticable. 
This  advantage  is  often  felt  in  mining  dis- 
tricts, and  sometimes  by  the  general  trade, 
where  it  is  necessary  to  cross  dividing  ridges 
at  a  level  too  high  to  obtain  water  for  canal 
navigation. 

432.  When  were  the  first  railroads  built  in 
the  United  States  for  coal  transportation  ? 

About  the  year  1825  short  lines  of  railroad 
for  coal  transportation  were  constructed  in 
our  country  as  feeders  to  the  various  canals. 
In  that  year  the  Schuylkill  Canal  was  opened 
to  Mount  Carbon,  then  a  suburb  of  Pottsville, 
in  the  Anthracite  coal  regions  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Abraham  Potts  built  a  railroad 
extending  half  a  mile  in  length  for  carrying 


Coal  Catechism 


coal  to  the  canal,  which  previously  had  been 
hauled  in  wagons. 

433.  How  was  this  railroad  constructed  f 
The  railroad  was  made  of  wooden  rails, 

laid  on  wooden  sills,  and  was  operated  by 
horses ;  a  dozen  or  more  small  cars,  holding 
li  tons  of  coal  each,  were  usually  coupled  to- 
gether and  drawn  in  trains  to  their  desti- 
nation. 

434.  What  are  the  principal  railroads  of  the 
Anthracite  regions  ? 

The  railroads  which  transport  almost  all 
of  the  Anthracite  coal  are  the  Philadelphia 
&  Beading,  the  Lehigh  Valley,  the  Central  of 
New  Jersey,  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  & 
Western,  the  Delaware  &  Hudson,  the  Penn- 
sylvania, the  Erie,  the  New  York,  Ontario  & 
Western,  the  Delaware,  Susquehanna  & 
Schuylkill,  and  the  New  York,  Susquehanna 
&  Western,  their  relative  tonnages  being  in 
the  order  given. 

435.  What  is  the  route  of  the  Philadelphia 
&  Reading  Railway  ? 

The  Philadelphia  &  Eeading  Bailway  was 
150 


Coal  Catechism 


built  as  an  outlet  for  the  Anthracite  coals  of 
the  Schuylkill  region  in  Pennsylvania  to  tide- 
water on  the  Delaware  Eiver  near  Philadel- 
phia. Its  route  is  along  the  Schuylkill  Eiver, 
from  Pottsville,  where  branches  in  the  coal 
field  connect  with  the  main  line,  to  Philadel  - 
phia,  distant  94  miles. 

436.  When  was  it  first  opened  for  traffic  ? 
On  January  1st,  1842,  the  first  locomotive 

and  train  passed  over  the  whole  line  between 
Pottsville  and  Philadelphia. 

437.  How  was  the  event  celebrated  ? 

The  event  marked  an  epoch  in  railroad 
shipments,  and  was  celebrated  with  military 
display.  The  train  consisted  of  75  passenger 
coaches,  containing  about  2,000  persons.  In 
the  rear  a  coal  train  followed,  consisting  of 
52  cars,  loaded  with  180  tons  of  Anthracite 
coal,  which  had  been  mined  the  same  day  in 
the  Pottsville  region. 

438.  What  was  the  cost  of  building  the  Phil- 
adelphia &  Reading  Railway  ? 

The  entire  capital  invested  in  the  railroad 
at  this  time  was  a  little  over  $16,000,000. 
151 


Coal  Catechism 


4S9.  What  was  considered  good  work  for  a 
locomotive  in  those  days  f 

A  locomotive  that  could  draw  200  gross 
tons — about  four  present-day  cars, — on  a 
level  road,  at  a  speed  of  from  10  to  12  miles 
an  hour,  was  considered  satisfactory. 

440.  What  was  the  capacity  of  coal  cars  in 
those  days  as  compared  with  the  present  ? 

They  were  very  much  smaller,  some  hold- 
ing but  five  tons  of  coal,  and  were  mounted 
on  four  wheels.  The  capacity  of  an  eight- 
wheeled  wooden  coal  car  to-day  is  about  30 
tons.  There  are  steel  cars  in  service  carrying 
50  tons  and  upward. 

441-  What  equipment  is  used  by  the  Beading 
Railway  for  coal  transportation  ? 

In  1904  the  Reading  Eailway  Company 
owned  940  locomotives,  and  about  25,000 
eight-wheeled  coal  cars,  in  addition  to  other 
equipment. 

442.    What  percentage  of  the  Anthracite  ton- 
nage is  carried  by  the  Heading  Eailway  ? 
The  Philadelphia  &  Beading  Eailway  now 
152 


Coal  Catechism 


transports  20  per  cent,  of  the  total  Anthra- 
cite shipments,  or  about  11,000,000  tons  an- 
nually. 

443.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  Lehigh 
Valley  Railroad  ? 

In  1847  the  Delaware,  Lehigh,  Schuylkill 
&  Susquehanna  Kailroad  Co.  was  chartered. 
The  broad  scope  of  its  title  came  from  the 
four  rivers  of  Pennsylvania,  and  its  route  was 
intended  to  connect  the  waters  of  these  rivers. 
It  has  since  been  merged  into  the  Lehigh 
Valley  Eailroad. 

444-  What  percentage  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Anthracite  is  carried  by  it  ? 

The  Lehigh  Valley  Eailroad  is  credited 
with  carrying  16.60  per  cent,  of  the  total  An- 
thracite tonnage,  or  about  9,600,000  tons 
annually. 


What  coal  car  equipment  is  used  by 
the  Lehigh  Valley  Eailroad  ? 

To  carry  this  coal  from  the  mines  to  the 
customer  requires  13,600  coal  cars. 
153 


Coal  Catechism 


44®'  What  special  privilege  is  contained  in 
the  charter  of  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  & 
Western  Railroad  Co.  ? 

This  company,  having  a  charter  antedating 
the  present  constitution  of  the  State  of  Penn- 
sylvania, is  one  of  the  few  railroad  companies 
privileged  to  carry  on  coal  mining  and  sell- 
ing together  with  transportation. 

447 '.    What  was  the  origin  of  this  company  ? 

This  was  originally  the  Ligett's  Gap  Eail- 
road  Co.,  incorporated  April  7,  1832 ;  char- 
tered March  19,  1849 ;  name  changed  by 
special  act  of  Legislature,  approved  April 
14, 1851,  to  Lackawanna  &  Western  ;  consoli- 
dated April  30,  1853,  with  the  Delaware  & 
Cobb's  Gap  Eailroad  Co.  (chartered  Decem- 
ber 4,  1850),  and  name  changed  to  "The 
Delaware,  Lackawanua  &  Western  Rail- 
road Co." 

'448.  What  percentage  of  Anthracite  tonnage 
is  carried  by  this  company  f 

The  Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Western 
Eailroad  carries  16.30  per  cent,  of  the  An- 
thracite tonnage,  amounting  to  about  9,600,- 
000  tons  annually. 

154 


Coal  Catechism 


449.  When  did  the  Lehigh  Coal  &  Naviga- 
tion Co.  first  begin  business  ? 

This  company  first  began  business  in  1820 
by  sending  forward  the  first  shipment  of  An- 
thracite coal  ever  made  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  one  of  the  old  pioneers  in  the  coal  de- 
velopment of  this  country. 

450.  Of  what  does  it  consist  ? 

It  controls  the  Lehigh  &  Susquehanna  Bail- 
road,  a  leased  line  of  the  Central  Eailroad  of 
N.  J-.,  and  the  Lehigh  Canal,  and  also  owns 
coal  lands  in  the  Lehigh  region. 

451.  What   percentage    of   the   Anthracite 
trade  is  done  by  this  system  ? 

The  Central  Eailroad  of  New  Jersey  carries 
12.54  per  cent,  of  the  Anthracite  tonnage, 
amounting  to  7,200,000  tons,  annually. 

452.  What  is  the  coal-car  equipment  of  the 
Central  Eailroad  of  New  Jersey  ? 

It  now  requires  18,500  coal  cars  to  carry 
the  tonnage  of  the  Central  Eailroad  of  New 
Jersey  over  its  system  in  the  States  of  New 
Jersey  and  Pennsylvania. 
155 


Coal  Catechism 


453.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad  ? 

In  1850  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  owned 
about  750  miles  of  canals  and  120  miles  of 
railroads,  which  for  various  reasons  were 
transferred  to  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Co., 
at  that  time  building  a  railroad  from  Harris- 
burg  to  Pittsburg.  Under  this  transfer  the 
Pennsylvania  Eailroad  Co.  acquired  the  "  old 
State  Road,"  from  Philadelphia  to  Columbia. 
It  also  secured  the  Harrisburg  &  Lancaster 
Railroad  intersecting  the  old  Columbia  Rail- 
road at  Lancaster.  This  gave  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad  its  present  "  mainline"  from 
the  Delaware  River  at  Philadelphia,  across 
the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  to  the  Ohio  River 
at  Pittsburg. 

454-  What  percentage  of  the  Anthracite  ton- 
nage is  carried  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  ? 

This  company  carries  about  4,800,000  tons 
of  Anthracite  coal  annually,  or  8. 90  per  cent. 

455.  Give  some  account  of  the  Delaware  & 
Hudson  Co.  ? 

This  company  was  chartered  in  1823,  ten 
years  before  the  Reading,  and  was  the  first 
156 


Coal  Catechism 


railroad  in  this  country  to  use  a  locomotive. 
Its  canal  has  been  abandoned  for  five  years. 
The  total  length  of  railroad  belonging  to  this 
company  is  688  miles. 

456.  What  percentage  of  Anthracite  does  it 
carry ? 

The  Delaware  &  Hudson  Co.  carries  5,275,- 
000  tons  of  Anthracite  annually,  or  9.23  per 
cent,  of  the  total  tonnage. 

457.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  Erie  Rail- 
road ? 

The  "New  York  &  Erie  Eailroad  "  was 
chartered  in  1832,  and  construction  com- 
menced in  1836  for  a  railroad  of  6-feet  gauge. 
It  was  opened  to  Port  Jervis  and  Bingham- 
ton  in  1848,  to  Elmira  in  1849,  to  Hornells- 
ville  in  1850,  and  to  Dunkirk  in  1851.  In 
1861  the  road  was  reorganized  under  the 
name,  "Erie  Eailway  Co.,"  and  in  1878  a 
third  rail  was  laid,  giving  the  standard 
guage  (4'  8i"),  from  Jersey  City  to  Buffalo, 
when  the  company  was  again  reorganized  as 
the  "New  York,  Lake  Erie  &  Western  Eail- 
road." In  1895  the  company  was  once  more 
reorganized  as  the  "  Erie  Kailroad  Co." 
157 


Coal  Catechism 


458.  What  percentage  of  Anthracite  coal  is 
carried  by  the  Erie  Railroad  ? 

The  Erie  Eailroad  carries  about  5,700,000 
tons  of  Anthracite  per  annum,  including  that 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Coal  Co.  and  New  York, 
Susquehanna  &  Western  Co.,  or  a  total  of 
9.96  per  cent. 

459.  Describe  the  Delaware,  Susquehanna  & 
Schuylkill  Railroad  1 

This  railroad  was  built  almost  exclusively 
for  the  transportation  of  Anthracite  coal. 
Its  main  line  of  track  is  from  Drifton  to 
Gowen,  in  Pennsylvania. 

460.  What  is  its  percentage  of  Anthracite 
tonnage  ? 

This  railroad  transports  about  1,500,000 
tons  of  Anthracite,  or  2.70  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  tonnage. 

461.  What  is  included   in  the  New   York, 
Susquehanna  &  Western  Railroad  ? 

This  line  extends  from  Jersey  City  to  a 
point  near  Stroudsburg,  Pa.,  where  it  con- 
nects with  an  affiliated  line,  the  Wilkes-Barre 
&  Eastern,  extending  to  mines  in  the  Wyom- 
158 


Coal  Catechism 


ing  Valley.  A  branch  extends  from  the 
main  line  to  Middletown,  N.  Y.,  and  the  Hud- 
son Eiver  Eailroad  &  Terminal  Co.,  with 
which  it  was  consolidated  in  1893,  extends 
from  another  point  on  the  main  line  to  coal 
shipping  piers  and  freight  sheds  on  the  Hud- 
son Eiver  at  Edgewater.  Total  mileage  about 
230.  This  line  is  now  owned  by  the  Erie 
Eailroad  Co.  and  its  coal  tonnage  is  included 
in  that  company's. 

462.  What  percentage   of  Anthracite   coal 
goes  over  this  railroad  ? 

About  1,500,000  tons  annually,  now  in- 
cluded in  Erie  Eailroad  tonnage. 

463.  When  was  the  New  York,  Ontario  & 
Western  Railway  organized  ? 

The  New  York,  Ontario  &  Western  Eail- 
way  was  organized  in  1879  as  successor  to  the 
New  York  &  Oswego  Midland  Eailroad.  It 
carries  Anthracite  coal  from  the  Pennsylvania 
fields  near  Carbondale  and  Scranton  to 
Oswego  on  Lake  Ontario  and  via  its  connec- 
tion at  Hancock,  N.  Y.,  to  Cornwall  on  the 
Hudson  Eiver,  and  to  Weehawken  in  New 
York  Harbor. 

159 


Coal  Catechism 


464.  What  is  its  percentage  of  the  Anthra- 
cite tonnage  ? 

About  2,600,000  tons,  or  4.60  per  cent,  of 
the  whole.  This  company  has  been  acquired 
by  the  New  York,  New  Haven,  and  Hartford 
Eailroad  Co. 

465.  What  interest  has  the  Anthracite-car- 
rying railroads  in  the  mines  ? 

Ninety-five  per  cent,  of  all  the  Anthracite 
coal  lands  in  the  United  States  is  owned  or 
controlled  by  these  great  transporting  rail- 
roads, operating  principally  in  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania.  A  large  amount  of  tonnage 
carried  is  bought  from  individuals  at  a  price 
based  on  a  percentage  of  the  tidewater  rate 
realized. 


160 


CHAPTER  FOURTEEN 

BITUMINOUS  BAIL  SHIPMENTS 

466.  Is  Pennsylvania  Anthracite  competitive 
with  foreign  coals  ? 

No  Anthracite  coal,  at  home  or  abroad,  has 
been  found  to  compare  with  that  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania mines,  either  in  quantity  or  quality. 
It  can  therefore  be  said  to  have  no  competi- 
tion with  any  other  Anthracite  coal,  and  for 
this  reason  no  tariff  is  necessary  to  protect 
the  industry. 

467.  Can  this  be  said  of  American  Bitumi- 
nous coals  ? 

On  the  contrary  American  Bituminous 
coals  shipped  by  rail  to  points  on  the  Atlan- 
tic coast-line  are  directly  competitive  with 
foreign  Bituminous  coals  shipped  by  water  to 
the  same  points. 

468.  What   prevents    foreign    Bituminous 
coals  from    supplanting    those    of   American 
mines  at  these  points  ? 

The  Tariff  Act  approved  July  24,  1897, 
which  imposed  a  duty  of  67  cents  per  ton  on 


Coal  Catechism 


all  coals  containing  less  than  92  per  cent,  of 
fixed  carbon,  a  qualification  which  includes 
all  Bituminous  coals.  This,  added  to  the 
fact  that  at  present  American  coals,  owing  to 
their  proximity  to  the  surface  and  the  greater 
thickness  and  continuity  of  the  seams,  can  be 
mined  cheaper  than  those  of  other  countries, 
prevents  the  latter  from  supplanting  the  prod- 
uct of  our  mines  at  Atlantic  coast  points. 

469.  What  is  the  average  price  of  English 
Bituminous  coals  at  the  mines  ? 

In  England  the  average  price  received  on 
the  Bituminous  coal  tonnage,  the  second  to 
the  largest  in  the  world,  is  about  $2.00  per 
ton  at  the  mines. 

470.  What  is  the  average  price  of  American 
Bituminous  coals  at  the  mines  ? 

The  average  price  received  in  America  on 
the  Bituminous  coal  tonnage,  the  largest  in 
the  world,  is  about  $1.00  per  ton  at  the  mines. 

471.  If  American  coals  are  sold  at  half  the 
price  of  English  coals  at  the  mines,  why  is  the 
tariff  necessary  ? 

The  price  given  in  both  cases  is  that  re- 
162 


Coal  Catechism 


ceived  for  the  coals  loaded  in  cars  at  the 
mines.  In  England,  however,  the  mines  are 
at  or  very  near  the  seacoast,  while  the  near- 
est American  Bituminous  mines  to  the  sea- 
board are  distant  several  hundred  miles.  To 
the  price  of  American  coals  at  the  mines, 
therefore,  must  be  added  the  cost  of  railroad 
transportation  to  the  Atlantic  seaports,  in 
order  to  compare  both  prices  at  those  points. 

472.  How  much  should  this  railroad  trans- 
portation cost  ? 

No  railroad  at  present  can  carry  coal  prof- 
itably for  so  great  a  distance  at  less  than 
$1.50  per  ton  ;  with  this  amount,  added  to 
the  average  price  of  $1.00  received  for  Amer- 
ican Bituminous  coals  at  the  mines,  the  aver- 
age price  at  the  nearest  tidewater  point  would 
be  $2. 50  per  ton. 

473.  What  other  transportation  expenses  are 
added  to  American  Bituminous  coals  ? 

In  America  railroads  under  one  manage- 
ment do  not  run  direct  from  the  Bituminous 
mines  to  all  the  coast  cities.     Transfers  must 
be  made,  and  connections  with  different  sys- 
163 


Coal  Catechism 


terns  of  railroads,  or,  as  is  most  frequently 
the  case,  the  coal  must  be  transferred  at  the 
nearest  tidewater  point  into  vessels,  for  which 
another  charge  is  made,  to  convey  the  coal 
by  sea  to  points  along  the  Atlantic  coast- 
line, any  one  of  which  could  be  reached  di- 
rectly by  vessels  or  steamers  from  England  or 
her  colonies  in  Canada  by  the  payment  of 
water  transportation  alone. 

474-  Sow  much  would  this  water  transporta- 
tion cost  ? 

At  certain  times  a  nominal  sum  only,  as 
English  vessels  frequently  come  to  the  United 
States  in  ballast,  and  English  coal  could  be 
used  for  this  purpose.  The  water  transporta- 
tion on  Canadian  coals  to  our  northern  sea- 
ports is  also  sufficiently  small  to  permit  their 
entry  free  of  duty  in  competition  with  Amer- 
ican coals,  paying  both  railroad  and  water 
freights. 

475.  What  are  the  principal  Bituminous- 
carrying  railroads  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  ? 

The  Bituminous- carry  ing  railroads  are  the 
Pennsylvania,  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  the 
164 


Coal  Catechism 


Norfolk  &  Western,  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio, 
and  the  Philadelphia  &  Reading,  with  their 
various  connections. 

476.  What  proportion  of  tidewater  Bitumi- 
nous coal  is  carried  by  the  Pennsylvania  Rail- 
road ? 

About  45  per  cent,  of  the  Bituminous  ton- 
nage coming  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard  at 
Philadelphia,  Penna.,  South  Amboy  and 
Harsimus,  N.  J.,  and  Baltimore,  Md.,  are 
shipped  over  the  lines  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad. 

477.  What  is  the  Bituminous  tidewater  ton- 
nage of  the  Norfolk  &  Western  Railroad  ? 

This  railroad  transports  to  Norfolk  an- 
nually about  11  per  cent,  of  the  tidewater 
Bituminous  tonnage  at  Lambert's  Point, 
which  is  on  Hampton  Roads  at  the  mouth 
of  the  James  River  in  Virginia. 

478.  What  is  the  Bituminous  tidewater  busi- 
ness of  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad  ? 

The  oldest  of  the  Bituminous  coal  carriers, 
the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad,  now  ships 
about  20  per  cent,  of  all  the  seaboard  tonnage 
165 


Coal  Catechism 


from  Locust  Point  and  Curtis  Bay,  on  the 
Chesapeake,  at  Baltimore ;  Philadelphia ; 
and  St.  George,  Staten  Island,  in  New  York 
Harbor. 

479.  What  is  the  tidewater  tonnage  of  the 
Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Railroad  ? 

About  14  per  cent.,  which  reaches  the  At- 
lantic seaboard  at  Newport  News,  on  Hamp- 
ton Eoads,  Virginia. 

480.  What  proportion  of  the  tidewater  Bi- 
tuminous tonnage  is  carried  by  the  Philadelphia 
&  Reading  Railway  ? 

The  remaining  11  per  cent,  of  the  Bitumi- 
nous seaboard  tonnage  is  carried  by  the  Phil- 
adelphia &  Beading  Eailway  to  Port  Eich- 
mond,  Philadelphia ;  Port  Eeading,  on  Staten 
Island  Sound,  New  Jersey  ;  or  Port  Liberty, 
on  New  York  Bay. 

481.  What  is  the  total  amount  of  Bituminous 
coal  carried  to  Atlantic  shipping  ports  annually  ? 

The  total  amount  of  Bituminous  coal  now 
handled  over  the  various  shipping  piers  on 
the  Atlantic  seaboard  is  estimated  at  about 
20,000,000  tons. 

166 


Coal  Catechism 


482.  How  much  of  the  Bituminous  regions 
in  the  United  States  are  owned  by  the  coal-carry- 
ing-railroads ? 

The  lands  in  the  American  Bituminous  fields 
are  owned  almost  entirely  by  individuals,  the 
transporting  railroads  having  little  interest 
in  or  control  over  them. 

483.  How  much  Bituminous  coal  is  there  re- 
maining in  these  lands  ? 

It  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  amount  of 
coal  unmined  in  the  Bituminous  fields  of 
America  j  any  figures  given  would  be  the 
merest  guesswork.  It  is  apparently  inex- 
haustible. 

484'  How  much  Anthr'acite  coal  is  still  un- 
mined ? 

It  has  been  estimated  that  about  5, 000, 000,  - 
000  tons  of  Anthracite  coal  still  remain  un- 
mined in  the  Pennsylvania  fields.  This 
amount,  at  the  present  rate  of  production, 
will  last  less  than  one  hundred  years. 

485.  Are  the  other  American  Bituminous 
coals,  excepting  those  coming  to  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board, competitive  with  foreign  coals  ? 

The  Bituminous  coals  transported  westward 
167 


Coal  Catechism 


from  our  interior  mines  by  rail,  and  south  by 
boats  on  the  great  rivers  Ohio  and  Mississippi, 
are  strictly  for  domestic  use  and  in  DO  way 
competitive  with  any  foreign  product.  Some 
imported  coals  are  brought  to  our  Pacific 
Coast  in  competition  with  our  mines  in  Cali- 
fornia, Oregon  and  Washington. 

486.  What  is  the  capacity  of  a  railroad  coal 
car? 

Eailroad  coal  cars  are  of  every  style  and 
pattern,  from  the  four-wheel  " jimmies," 
carrying  about  five  tons  each,  to  the  eight- 
wheel  "  hopper  gondola,"  with  a  capacity  of 
60,000  to  100,000  pounds  (30  to  50  tons) 
each. 

487.  What  is  a  four-wheel  "  jimmie  "  :? 

A  four-wheel  " jimmie"  is  a  railroad  car 
made  of  wood.  They  were  the  first  cars 
made  for  the  transportation  of  Anthracite 
coal,  and  have  now  almost  disappeared  from 
use. 

488.  What  other  kind  of  cars  are  used  for 
coal  shipments  1 

There  are  iron  cars  with  four,  six  or  eight 
168 


Coal  Catechism 


wheels,  with  drop  or  hopper  bottoms,  flat  or 
platform  cars  with  side-boards,  such  as  are 
commonly  used  for  shipments  to  the  Lakes, 
returning  laden  with  ore  or  other  tonnage. 
The  most  common  form  of  coal  car  for  ship- 
ment of  coal  to  tidewater  is  the  hopper-bot- 
tom gondola  of  100,000  pounds  (50  tons)  ca- 
pacity, made  of  steel  and  having  eight 
wheels ;  these  cars  are  equipped  with  air- 
brakes and  patent  couplers. 

489.  What  is  an  li  individual  "  coal  car  f 
An  " individual"  coal  car  is  one  owned  or 

leased  by  a  coal  operator,  and  not  by  the 
transporting  railroad  company.  These  cars 
have  painted  on  their  sides  the  names,  initials, 
or  some  chosen  trade-mark  or  emblem  of  their 
owners,  and  are  run  for  their  exclusive  ben- 
efit. They  are  generally  used  between  the 
mines  and  the  coast-wise  shipping  ports  of 
the  various  railroads. 

490.  How  is  the  coal  discharged  from  hopper 
cars  into  vessels  at  tidewater  ? 

Arriving  at  tidewater,  these  cars  are  first 
weighed  and  then  run  out  on  a  pier  or  wharf, 
and  the  coal  is  dumped,  by  means  of  the 
169 


Coal  Catechism 


drop -bottoms,  into  the  holds  of  vessels  wait- 
ing to  receive  it.  The  vessel,  having  thus  re- 
ceived her  cargo  of  coal,  is  cleared  for  the 
various  cities  or  towns  along  our  Atlantic 
coast  or  for  foreign  ports. 

491.  How  is  coal  discharged  from  flat  cars 
into  vessels  ? 

In  some  cases,  at  lake  ports,  the  loaded  car 
is  run  into  a  large  iron  cylinder,  into  which 
it  is  firmly  clamped.  The  cylinder  is  then 
rolled  up  an  inclined  plane  causing  the  car  to 
turn  over,  when  the  coal  rolls  out  into  a 
chute,  and  from  thence  into  the  vessel's 
hatches. 

492.  W  hat  is  a  coal  barge  ? 

Although  coal  can  be  moved  by  sailing 
vessels  at  very  low  rates,  they  sometimes  fail 
to  move  promptly,  and  the  service  is  often 
broken  by  trade  conditions  or  the  whims  and 
personal  fancies  of  their  individual  owners 
and  captains.  For  these  and  other  reasons 
large  operators  use  coal  barges  towed  by 
steamers,  called  colliers,  or  powerful  sea-go- 
ing tugs,  for  conveying  their  coal  to  coast- 
wise or  foreign  destinations. 
170 


Coal  Catechism 


493.   How  are  coal  barges  constructed  ? 

Coal  barges  are  built  on  the  lines  of  a  ship, 
in  order  to  make  them  ride  and  handle  easily 
in  a  sea.  They  usually  have  three  or  four 
masts,  with  sufficient  sail  to  make  the  nearest 
port  should  they  break  away  from  the  towing 
steamer  or  tug. 

494-    What  is  the  capacity  of  a  coal  barge? 

Each  barge  carries  from  1,500  to  2, 000  tons 
of  coal.  The  towing  steamer  or  collier  can 
also  carry  about  the  same  amount  of  coal. 
A  loaded  steamer  usually  tows  one  loaded 
coal  barge,  and  a  tug  will  tow  two  or  three 
together. 

495.  What  is  "  bunker  coal  "  ? 

Bunker  coal  is  a  term  applied  to  the  supply 
of  coal  consumed  by  the  ocean  steamers  plying 
between  our  ports  and  all  parts  of  the  world. 
It  is  the  coal  put  into  a  steamer's  bunkers 
for  its  own  consumption,  or  into  the  bunkers 
of  tugs,  ferry-boats,  or  other  steam  water- 
craft. 

496.  How  much  coal  will  an  ocean  steamer 
carry  in  her  bunkers  ? 

One  of  the  larger  ocean  steamers  will  take 
171 


Coal  Catechism 


from  2,000  to  3,000  tons  of  Bituminous  coal  to 
fill  her  bunkers.  In  consuming  this  coal 
about  100  furnaces  are  used  for  the  boilers. 
These  boilers  frequently  have  a  capacity  of 
30,000  horse-power. 

497.  How  is  an  ocean  steamer  "  bunkered  " 
in  American  ports  ? 

Boats  or  flat  barges  of  from  200  to  350 
tons'  capacity  are  towed  alongside  the 
steamer,  and  then,  by  means  of  booms  and 
tackle  operated  by  a  small  donkey-engine, 
steel  buckets  are  lowered  to  the  barge,  filled 
with  coal,  and  hoisted  to  the  port- holes. 
Through  these  the  coal  is  passed  to  the  ship's 
bunkers.  Sometimes  self-discharging  steam 
barges  are  used,  which  convey  the  coal  up 
an  incline,  and  thence  through  chutes  in  the 
steamer's  ports  by  endless  carriers  or  con- 
veyors. 

498.  How  are  steamers  "  bunkered  "  in  the 
West  Indies  f 

In  the  "West  Indies  steamers  are  coaled  by 
negro  women,  who  carry  on  their  heads 
baskets  of  coal  containing  about  100  pounds 
each. 

172 


CHAPTEE  FIFTEEN 

HEAT 

499.  What  is  heat  ? 

This  question  has  never  received  any  satis- 
factory answer,  but  it  was  most  generally  be- 
lieved to  be  a  substance  of  itself,  and  identical 
with  light.  During  the  eighteenth  century 
the  supposed  principle  of  heat  or  inflamma- 
bility was  called  phlogiston  ;  later  this  prin- 
ciple was  called  caloric.  To-day  heat  is  called 
energy,  not  matter,  and  depends  upon  motion. 

500.  What  is  the  usual  effect  produced  on 
bodies  by  heat  ? 

It  causes  them  to  expand,  or  to  occupy 
more  space.  If  the  heat  be  increased,  solid 
bodies  will  become  liquid,  and  liquid  bodies 
will  become  aeriform,  or  rise  in  vapor. 

501.  Can  all  solid  bodies  be  made  fluid  with 
sufficient  heat  ? 

That  is  an  established  principle,  and  has 
been  proven  in  nearly  all  cases  by  actual 
trial. 


Coal  Catechism 


502.  What  effect  is  produced  by  diminishing 
the  heat  of  a  body  f 

Bodies  so  treated  lose  in  bulk,  or  are  con- 
densed, and  if  the  process  be  continued,  aeri- 
form bodies  become  fluid,  and  fluid  bodies 
become  solid  j  thus,  cold  changes  the  vapor 
into  dew  or  rain,  and  water  into  ice. 

503.  Does  ice  occupy  less  space  than  water  ? 
No  ;  in  the  act  of  freezing,  water  expands. 

This  is  caused  by  the  particles  of  water  crys- 
tallizing separately,  leaving  many  intervals 
or  hollow  spaces  between  them. 

504.  To  what  degree  of  heat  may  water  be 
raised  ? 

In  an  open  vessel  it  may  be  raised  to  212 
degrees  and  no  higher.  A  continued  increase 
of  heat  has  no  effect  other  than  to  convert  the 
water  into  steam,  which  will  be  of  the  same 
degree  of  heat, — 212  degrees. 

505.  To  what  degree  of  heat  may  steam  be 
raised  in  a  close  vessel  ? 

In  a  close  vessel  the  temperature  of  steam 
may  be  raised  to  any  extent,  and  is  limited 
174 


Coal  Catechism 


only  by  the  strength  of  the  vessel  containing 
it. 

506.  When,  by  the  application  of  heat,  a  solid 
body  is  being  reduced  to  liquid,  will  the  temper- 
ature continue  to  rise  ? 

At  a  certain  point  in  the  process  the  tem- 
perature as  marked  by  the  thermometer  be- 
comes stationary,  and  although  the  heat  be 
continually  applied,  no  rise  in  the  tempera- 
ture will  be  observed  until  the  whole  of  the 
solid  has  become  liquid. 

507.  What  is  the  "  point  of  liquefaction,"  or 
"  fusing  point  "  ? 

The  point  at  which  a  body  begins  to  fuse 
or  melt ;  it  is  different  in  different  sub- 
stances. 

508.  What  is  meant  by  "  latent  heat  "  ? 
The  quantity  of  heat  absorbed  by  the  body 

in  melting  and  unaccounted  for,  as  far  as  the 
thermometer  is  concerned,  is  called  latent 
heat. 

509.  Give  an  example  of  latent  heat  ? 

If,  for  example,  a  quantity  of  snow  at  the 
175 


Coal  Catechism 


temperature  of  zero,  with  a  thermometer  in 
it,  be  placed  in  a  vessel  on  the  fire,  the  tem- 
perature will  be  observed  to  rise  to  32  de- 
grees ;  the  snow  will  then  immediately  begin 
to  be  converted  into  water,  and  the  thermom- 
eter will  remain  stationary  at  32  degrees 
until  the  whole  of  the  snow  is  melted.  But 
if  the  same  heat  be  applied  to  a  vessel  con- 
taining water  only,  it  is  soon  heated  to  a  high 
degree  and  is  made  to  boil. 


510.  What  then  becomes  of  all  the  heat  that 
is  applied  to  the  vessel  containing  snow,  which 
neither  increases  the  heat  of  the  snow  or  water  f 

It  is  all  absorbed  or  rendered  insensible  in 
the  conversion  of  the  solid  body  into  a  liquid ; 
and  the  heat  so  absorbed  or  rendered  latent 
daring  the  process,  being  that  which  is  neces- 
sary to  produce  liquefaction,  is  hence  called 
also  the  "  heat  of  liquefaction,"  and  amounts 
to  no  less  than  140  degrees, — that  is,  although 
snow  or  ice  may  be  of  the  same  temperature 
as  water,  yet  the  water  actually  contains  140 
degrees  of  heat  more  than  the  solid  snow  or 
ice. 

176 


Coal  Catechism 


511.  What  happens  after  the  snow  is  melted  ? 
As  soon  as  the  whole  of  the  snow  is  melted, 

the  temperature  of  the  water  will  begin  to 
rise,  and  will  continue  to  do  so  until  it  reaches 
212  degrees,  when  the  boiling  point  of  water 
has  been  attained  and  it  becomes  vapor. 

512.  Then  water  cannot  be  heated  beyond  the 
boiling  point  ? 

It  may  be  so,  if  the  water  be  contained  in 
a  close  vessel,  from  which  the  steam  can  have 
no  escape ;  but  while  steam  is  rapidly  escap- 
ing, the  water  remains  at  212  degrees,  and 
the  steam  at  212  degrees  also. 

513.  What  is  the  amount  of  heat  absorbed  ? 
The  heat  which  is  absorbed,   called  the 

"heat  of  vaporization,"  being  that  which  is 
required  to  maintain  water  in  the  state  of 
vapor  or  steam,  amounts  to  no  less  than  1,000 
degrees  of  temperature, — that  is,  although 
water  may  be  at  212  degrees  and  steam  may 
be  at  212  degrees,  yet  the  steam  contains  a 
larger  amount  of  heat  than  water,  such  as  is 
represented  by  1,000  degrees  on  the  scale  of 
the  thermometer. 

177 


Coal  Catechism 


514.  How  is  the  force  or  pressure  of  steam 
measured  ? 

The  pressure  of  steam  is  measured  by  the 
force  it  exerts  on  one  square  inch  of  surface. 
At  212  degrees  of  temperature  the  pressure 
of  steam  is  equal  to  one  atmosphere,  or  15 
pounds  on  every  square  inch  of  surface ;  at 
250  degrees  the  steam  pressure  is  equal  to  two 
atmospheres,  or  30  pounds  on  the  square 
inch  j  at  275  degrees  the  pressure  is  that  of 
three  atmospheres,  or  45  pounds  on  the 
square  inch,  and  so  on.  This  is  called  the 
* '  absolute  steam  pressure. ' ' 

515.  What  is  the  "  effective  steam  pressure  "  ? 

The  atmosphere  exerts  a  pressure  of  15 
pounds  per  square  inch  of  surface.  For  ef- 
fective energy  this  amount  must  first  be  over- 
come. Steam,  therefore,  at  212  degrees 
would  just  balance  the  atmosphere  and  have 
no  effective  pressure.  If,  besides  this,  the 
steam  would  raise  a  weight  of  15  pounds, 
then  its  absolute  pressure  would  be  30 
pounds,  and  its  effective  pressure  would  be 
15  pounds. 

178 


Coal  Catechism 


516.  How  is  the  pressure  of  steam  measured 
in  stationary  and  locomotive  engines  ? 

In  general,  the  pressure  of  steam  in  station- 
ary and  locomotive  engines  is  measured  by 
its  ' l  effective  steam  pressure. ' '  The  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  is  not  considered  in  gradu- 
ating the  gauges. 

517.  How  is  heat  communicated  from  one 
part  of  a  body  to  another  ? 

If  it  be  a  solid  body,  it  is  communicated 
from  one  particle  to  that  next  in  contact,  and 
so  on. 

518.  How  is  this  illustrated  ? 

This  may  be  illustrated  by  putting  the  end 
of  a  poker  in  the  fire,  and  observing  how  the 
heat  gradually  extends  from  the  part  which 
is  in  the  fire  to  the  other  end. 

519.  How  is  heat  communicated  to  fluids  ? 

If  it  be  from  above,  the  heat  is  communi- 
cated slowly  from  one  particle  to  another ; 
but  if  from  below,  there  is  a  constant  internal 
motion,  the  heated  particles  rising  to  the  sur- 
face and  the  colder  coming  to  the  bottom, 
until  the  whole  is  raised  to  the  boiling  point. 

179 


Coal  Catechism 


520.  Are  all  bodies  good  conductors  of  heat  ? 
No  j  there  is  a  great  difference.     Porous 

bodies  having  large  vacuities,  such  as  cork, 
cloth,  bran,  and  straw,  are  bad  conductors  of 
heat. 

521.  What  is  a  unit  of  heat  ? 

A  unit  of  heat  is  the  quantity  of  heat  re- 
quired to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound 
of  water  from  39  degrees  to  40  degrees  Fahren- 
heit. 

522.  What  is  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  a 
unit  of  heat  ? 

The  mechanical  equivalent  of  a  unit  of  heat 
is  772  foot-pounds. 

523.  What  is  a  foot-pound  ? 

A  foot-pound,  or  the  unit  of  work,  is  the 
energy  exerted  in  raising  or  lifting  one  pound 
in  weight  one  foot  high  in  one  minute. 


What  is  meant  by  a"  horse-power  "  ? 
A  horse-power  is  equal  to  33,000  pounds 
in  weight  raised  or  lifted  one  foot  high  in 
one  minute. 

180 


Coal  Catechism 


525.  What  working  energy  is  contained  in 
one  pound  of  coal  ? 

A  pound  of  coal  contains  14,500  units  of 
heat.  The  working  energy  is  equal,  there- 
fore, to  the  product  of  14,500  units  of  heat 
multiplied  by  772  foot-pounds,  or  11,194,000 
pounds  in  weight  raised  one  foot  high  in  one 
minute.  This  amount  of  work  cannot,  how- 
ever, be  obtained  in  practice. 

526.  What  is  fire? 

According  to  old  writers,  fire  is  one  of  the 
four  primary  conditions  of  matter,  or  an  ele- 
mentary substance  which  has  the  property 
of  devouring  other  bodies,  the  other  three 
elements  being  air,  earth  and  water.  In  the 
ordinary  sense,  fire  is  understood  to  mean 
matter  in  a  state  of  combustion. 

527.  What  is  combustion  ? 

By  combustion  is  meant  the  phenomenon 
called  burning.  In  coal  it  is  a  union  of 
the  elements  constituting  the  fuel  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air. 

181 


Coal  Catechism 


528.  How  is  it  produced  f 

By  the  application  of  heat,  originating  in 
the  following  general  divisions  : 
1st.     The  sun. 
2d.      Lightning,  electricity. 
3d.     Chemical  combinations. 
4th.    Friction  or  collision. 

529.  How  is  energy  produced  by  combustion  ? 

When  coal  is  heated  to  the  point  of  igni- 
tion, the  oxygen  of  the  air  unites  with  the 
carbon  and  hydrogen  in  the  coal,  and  the  re- 
sult is  combustion.  It  is  nothing  more  than 
a  chemical  change,  producing  energy  in  the 
form  of  heat ;  a  piece  of  iron  slowly  rusting 
is  undergoing  a  similar  change. 

530.  What    are    the   ordinary  combustibles 
used  in  producing  heat  f 

Ordinary  combustibles  include  coal,  wood, 
charcoal,  natural  gas,  oil,  coke  and  turf. 

531.  How  do  these  rate  in  efficiency  ? 

Wood  is  the  least  efficient  of  the  combus- 
tibles, on  account  of  the  great  amount  of 
water  it  contains  that  must  be  converted  into 
steam,  while  coal  is  the  most  efficient.  Dry 

182 


Coal  Catechism 


wood,  when  burned,  evolves,  on  an  average, 
3,600  heat  units,  and  Bituminous  coal  an  av- 
erage of  7,500  heat  units. 

532.  What  is  the  cause  of  spontaneous  com- 
bustion of  coal  ? 

The  cause  has  never  been  fully  understood. 
In  general  it  may  be  said  to  be  caused  by : 

1st.  The  continuous  application  of  a  mod- 
erate heat  to  a  large,  closely-packed  coal  pile, 
such  as  the  heat  caused  by  the  proximity  of 
steam  pipes  or  hot-air  flues,  or  the  heat  of 
the  sun  in  summer.  Coal  in  small  quantities 
and  in  a  cool  place  never  ignites  sponta- 
neously. 

2d.  The  decomposition  of  iron  pyrites 
contained  in  the  coal  and  its  oxidation  when 
exposed  to  the  action  of  oxygen  and  moisture. 

3d.  The  absorption  by  the  coal  of  the  ox- 
ygen in  the  air,  after  it  has  been  mined  and 
broken  into  fragments  above  ground.  The 
absorption  of  the  oxygen  raises  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  coal,  perhaps  not  sufficiently  high 
to  cause  combustion,  but  the  oxygen  becom- 
ing chemically  active  in  the  centre  of  a 
183 


Coal  Catechism 


coal  pile,  a  sufficient  amount  of  air  may  be 
supplied  to  cause  spontaneous  combustion. 

583.  Are  low  grade  or  poor  coals  more  likely 
to  ignite  spontaneously  than  the  high-grade 
coals  ? 

It  has  not  been  so  proved  from  the  various 
instances  of  spontaneous  combustion  investi- 
gated. From  them  it  appears  that  by  far  the 
greater  number  happened  in  coals  free  from 
iron  pyrites  and  comparatively  free  from 
slate,  and  known  as  thoroughly  high-grade 
coals. 


184 


CHAPTER  SIXTEEN 

POWER 

584.    What  is  steam  ? 

Steam  is  water  changed  by  heat  into  a  gas. 
If  we  heat  water  to  a  temperature  of  212  de- 
grees, we  produce  steam,  which  escapes  in 
the  bubbles  of  the  process  called  "boiling." 

535.  Is  steam  visible  ? 

It  is  not.  The  cloud  which  can  be  seen  es- 
caping from  an  engine  or  locomotive  consists 
of  small  particles  of  water  or  vapor,  and  is 
the  result  of  condensation  of  the  steam  in 
contact  with  the  colder  atmosphere. 

536.  How  is  power  produced  by  steam  ? 
By  expansion. 

537.  What  is  meant  by  steam  expansion? 
In  all  gases  a  repulsion  is  exerted  between 

the  particles,  so  that  any  gas,  however  small 
in  quantity,  will  always  fill  the  vessel  in 
which  it  is  held.  Steam  possesses  this  same 
property,  and  if  placed  in  any  vessel,  the 


Coal  Catechism 


particles  in  endeavoring  to  separate  from  each 
other  will  exert  a  force  on  all  its  sides.  This 
force  is  called  steam  pressure. 

538.  How  is  this  pressure  utilized  ? 

In  mechanical  contrivances  called  steam 
engines,  where  the  steam  is  admitted  to  an 
enclosed  cylinder,  and  by  its  expansive  force 
is  made  to  move  a  piston  back  and  forth,  and 
with  it  the  connected  machinery. 

539.  How  much  water  will  a  pound  of  coal 
evaporate  in  ordinary  practice  ? 

The  quantity  of  water  which  is  converted 
into  steam  by  a  pound  of  coal  varies  with 
the  quality  of  the  coal  and  the  construction 
and  condition  of  the  boiler.  It  will  average 
from  six  to  eight  pounds  of  water  for  each 
pound  of  coal. 

540.  In  an  ordinary  locomotive,  how  much 
coal  is  burned  per  hour  ? 

For  a  small -sized  locomotive,  say  of  30 
tons'  weight,  it  is  necessary  to  burn  from  500 
to  2,000  pounds  of  coal  per  hour  to  generate 
the  required  amount  of  steam  and  to  evap- 
orate from  6,000  to  12,000  pounds  of  water. 
186 


Coal  Catechism 


541.  How  far  will  a  ton  of  coal  run  a  loco- 
motive ? 

Circumstances  will  make  a  great  variation 
in  this  calculation,  but  a  rough  average  run 
by  an  ordinary  locomotive  would  be  from  35 
to  50  miles  with  one  ton  of  good  Bituminous 
coal. 

54%*    Which  is  the  best  coal  for  steaming  ? 

Circumstances  again  will  cause  a  wide  va- 
riation in  the  steaming  power  of  coals.  For 
small  boilers  where  the  fire-box  is  small  and 
the  draft  poor  or  natural,  a  white-ash  coal, 
high  in  carbon  and  low  in  volatile  gases, 
will  give  the  best  results.  For  larger  boilers 
with  plenty  of  grate-surface  and  a  draft  good 
or  artificial,  a  coal  lower  in  carbon  and  higher 
in  volatile  matter  can  be  used  with  more 
economy,  as  the  combustion  will  not  be  so 
rapid,  owing  to  the  greater  "body"  in  the 
coal. 

543.    What  is  meant  by  the  "  body"  of  coal  ? 

Body  is  the  term  generally  used  to  indicate 
the  fatty,  inflammable  property  in  coals, 
which  is  the  basis  of  the  phenomenon  called 

187 


Coal  Catechism 


combustion.  A  coal  having  no  body  is  said 
to  be  "  dry  "  or  "  flashy, "  owing  to  its  rapid 
combustion. 

544-  What  is  the  difference  between  Bitumi- 
nous and  semi- Bituminous  coals  ? 

When  a  coal  contains  as  much  as  18  per 
cent,  of  volatile  matter,  it  is  called  semi -Bi- 
tuminous, and  when  the  volatile  matter  is  as 
high  as  30  per  cent,  or  over,  it  is  called  Bi- 
tuminous, although  there  is  no  bitumen  in 
the  composition  of  either.  The  oily  matter 
which  sometimes  exudes  from  burning  coal 
closely  resembles  that  substance,  but  it  is  not 
bitumen. 

545.  What  is  bitumen  f 

Bitumen  is  a  mineral  pitch  in  various  de- 
grees of  density  from  naptha  to  asphalt. 

546.  What  is  the  "  mother  "  of  coal  ? 

In  examining  a  piece  of  bright  coal  it  some- 
times occurs  that  the  fragment  contains  thin 
layers  of  a  dull  black  substance,  which  the 
observer  almost  invariably  pronounces  slate. 
More  frequently  this  substance  is  the 
" mother"  of  coal,  is  often  as  highly  com- 
188 


Coal  Catechism 


bustible  as  charcoal,  and  its  presence  gener- 
ally indicates  a  high-grade  coal. 

547.  How  can  the  il  mother  "  be  distinguished 
from  slate  ? 

It  can  generally  be  distinguished  from  slate 
by  scraping  with  the  point  of  a  knife.  Slate 
is  hard  and  gritty  j  the  "mother  "  is  soft  and 
woody. 

548.  Theoretically,  which  kind  of  coal  would 
be  the  most  powerful  "  steamer  "  ? 

Theoretically,  Anthracite  would  be  as 
much  better  than  the  Bituminous  coal  as  it 
exceeds  that  fuel  in  fixed  carbon.  But  this  is 
not  the  case.  Either  from  the  difficulty  of 
combustion  or  the  inefficiency  of  the  mechan- 
ical appliances  at  present  in  use  for  generating 
steam,  the  excess  of  carbon  in  Anthracite  is 
not  utilized,  and,  generally  speaking,  a  ton 
of  Bituminous  coal  will  generate  as  much,  if 
not  more,  steam  as  an  equal  ton  of  Anthra- 
cite. 

549.  When  was  coal  first  used  for  locomotive 
fuel  in  the  United  States  ? 

Some  years  ago  wood  was  the  fuel  in  gen 
189 


Coal  Catechism 


eral  use  for  locomotives  in  the  United  States. 
In  1849  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  loco- 
motives on  the  Beading  Railway  were  burn- 
ing Anthracite  coal.  On  the  -Baltimore  & 
Ohio  Eailroad  Anthracite  coal  had  been  used 
on  the  very  earliest  of  their  locomotives,  but 
these  had  vertical  boilers,  and  when  attempts 
were  made  to  use  Anthracite  on  locomotives 
with  horizontal  boilers,  various  obstacles  had 
to  be  met  and  overcome. 

550.  What  objections  were  raised  to  coal  as 
locomotive  fuel  ? 

It  was  claimed  by  experts  that  a  coal  fire 
produced  destructive  effects  upon  the  inside 
sheets  of  the  fire-box,  blistering  and  burning 
them  away.  It  was  also  said  to  occasion  the 
melting  of  the  grate-bars  and  the  destruction 
of  the  boiler-tubes,  together  with  the  accumu- 
lation and  igniting  of  fine  coal  in  the  smoke- 
box. 

551.  How  much  coal  is  now  burned  annually 
by  locomotives  in  the  United  States  ? 

The  locomotive  or   "  supply "   coal  now 
used  annually  in  the  United  States  amounts 
to  over  100,000,000  tons,  and  is  the  largest 
190 


Coal  Catechism 


single  item  of  expense  in  the  operation  of  our 
railways. 

552.  What  is  the  cost  of  locomotive  coal  ? 
The  cost  of  coal  consumed  by  a  locomotive 

has  been  estimated  to   average  about  two 
cents  per  mile  of  run. 

553.  Which  is  the  best  fuel  for  locomotives? 
On  this  subject  there  is  much  diversity  of 

opinion.  There  is  no  doubt  that  Bituminous 
is  the  most  economical,  owing  to  its  extremely 
low  cost  and  its  more  easy  and  perfect  com- 
bustion. A  Bituminous  coal  fire  is  easily 
managed  by  a  fireman,  and  if  the  better 
grades  are  used  there  is  very  little  waste 
from  ashes  or  clinkers.  An  Anthracite  fire 
requires  much  care,  burns  with  a  fierce  heat, 
and  generates  more  ashes  and  clinkers.  Its 
cost  is  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  higher— suf- 
ficient to  class  it  as  a  luxury  suitable  only 
for  passenger  trains,  where  the  smoke  from 
the  Bituminous  coal  might  be  an  objection- 
able feature.  No  such  objection  exists  for 
freight  locomotives,  and  the  use  of  Bitumi- 
nous coal  for  this  purpose  is  almost  universal. 
191 


Coal  Catechism 


554-    Which  is  the  best  fuel  for  steamships  ? 

Bituminous  coal  is  considered  the  best, 
being  used  almost  exclusively  on  all  ocean 
steamers  plying  between  our  ports  and  all 
parts  of  the  world. 

555.  Is  the  consumption  of  Anthracite  coal 
greater  than   that   of  Bituminous  coal  in  the 
United  States  ? 

In  no  State  of  the  Union  is  the  consump- 
tion of  Anthracite  coal  greater  than  that  of 
Bituminous.  In  some  five  or  six  of  them  the 
consumption  of  both  coals  is  nearly  equal. 
In  every  other  State  the  consumption  of  Bi- 
tuminous coal  is  far  greater  than  that  of  An- 
thracite. 

556.  What  is  the  proper  method  of  firing  a 
boiler  with  coal  ? 

If  Anthracite  coal  is  used,  it  should  be 
spread  evenly  over  the  entire  grate  in  a  thin 
layer,  of  sufficient  thickness,  however,  to 
prevent  the  strong  blast  from  lifting  the  coal 
off  the  grates.  If  Bituminous  is  used,  this 
system  can  also  be  applied  for  the  poorer 
grades,  but  if  a  good  non-clinkering  coal  is 
192 


Coal  Catechism 


supplied  it  is  better  first  to  wet  the  coal 
slightly  and  then  bank  it  in  the  back  part  of 
the  furnace,  partially  filling  the  doorway  and 
sloping  down  toward  the  front  of  the  grate, 
where  the  layer  of  coal  is  thin  and  in  an 
active  state  of  incandescence.  This  bank  of 
coal  is  then  pushed  forward  over  the  burning 
coals  and  a  new  charge  is  banked  at  the  door 
as  before. 

557.  What  thickness  of  coal  should  be  in  the 
layer  ? 

The  mass  of  coal  in  combustion  should 
never  exceed  eight  inches  in  thickness,  and 
in  most  cases  six  inches  will  be  sufficient. 
Any  excess  over  this  amount  is  waste. 

558.  What  is  * '  smokeless  "  Bituminous  coal  ? 
There  is  no  such  fuel  known.     All  coals  in 

combustion  produce  more  or  less  smoke,  but 
the  quantity  thrown  off  burning  coals  can  in 
a  measure  be  regulated  by  the  supply  of  air 
admitted  to  the  fire.  A  free  admission  of  air 
over  the  fire  will  produce  active  combustion 
of  the  smoke  and  gases  in  all  Bituminous 
coals,  and  in  many  cases  renders  them  prac- 
193 


Coal  Catechism 


tically,  but  not  entirely,  smokeless.  The  pre- 
vention of  smoke  is  the  result  of  good  firing, 
and  experience  will  determine  the  amount  of 
air  which  can  advantageously  be  admitted 
above  the  fire  surface. 


194 


CHAPTER  SEVENTEEN 

METALLURGICAL 

559.  When  was  coal  first  used  for  smelting 
iron  in  furnaces  ? 

Probably  about  1740,  in  the  Colebrook- 
dale  Works,  in  Shropshire,  England,  where 
iron  was  smelted  with  charred  pit-coal  or 
coke. 

560.  What  cause  first  led  to  the  use  of  coal 
for  smelting  iron  ? 

Coal  was  first  used  for  metallurgical  pur- 
poses not  of  choice,  but  of  necessity.  The 
time  had  arrived  in  the  British  iron  trade 
when  the  enormous  amount  of  wood  required 
for  the  iron  furnaces  was  not  procurable. 
Not  only  had  the  grown  timber  been  gener- 
ally wasted,  but  there  had  been  an  unthrifty 
neglect  in  not  planting  young  trees,  so  that 
there  was  a  great  scarcity  of  wood,  not 
only  for  industrial  purposes,  but  also  for  do- 
mestic use. 


Coal  Catechism 


661.  Which  coal  was  first  used  in  the  United 
States  for  smelting  iron  ? 

A  few  attempts  were  made  to  use  coke 
made  from  Bituminous  coals,  but  Anthracite 
was  the  first  to  be  used  largely  in  American 
blast  furnaces,  and  for  many  years  after  its 
adaptability  to  the  smelting  of  iron  ore  was 
established  it  was  in  greater  demand  for  this 
purpose  than  Bituminous  coal,  coked  or  un- 
coked. 

562.  Is  this  the  case  at  present  ? 

No.  In  recent  years  the  relative  popular- 
ity of  Anthracite  and  Bituminous  coals  for 
blast-furnace  use  has  been  exactly  reversed. 

563.  What  difficulties  prevented  the  immedi- 
ate introduction  of  Anthracite  into  the  Ameri- 
can furnaces  ? 

The  natural  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the 
successful  introduction  of  Anthracite  coal  into 
our  blast  furnaces  were  increased  by  the  fact 
that  up  to  that  time,  when  we  began  our  ex- 
periments in  its  use,  no  other  country  had 
succeeded  in  using  it  as  a  furnace  fuel. 
196 


Coal  Catechism 


564-   Had  any  other  attempts  been  made  ? 

Extensive  experiments  in  smelting  with 
Anthracite  coal  were  made  in  1828,  at  Vizille, 
on  the  borders  of  France  and  Switzerland. 
Here  the  attempt  was  made  to  use  Anthracite 
coal  in  a  blast  furnace,  either  alone  or  in 
connection  with  other  fuel. 

565.  With  what  results  ? 

It  was  found  that  as  long  as  the  proportion 
of  Anthracite  did  not  exceed  one-fifth  of  the 
whole  fuel,  the  furnaces  continued  to  work 
as  usual  and  the  iron  remained  gray  j  but 
beyond  this  limit  the  pig  became  white,  the 
furnace  chilled  and  was  in  danger  of  chok- 
ing. The  experiments  were  abandoned  in 
despair  of  rendering  by  this  means  the  man- 
ufacture of  iron  profitable,  and  the  outlay  of 
one  or  two  hundred  thousand  francs  was 
charged  to  profit  and  loss  account. 

566.  What  caused  these  failures  1 
Principally  the  inferior  quality  of  Anthra- 
cite coal  used,  and  also  the  fact  that  the  hot 
blast  for  furnaces  was  not  then  known. 

197 


Coal  Catechism 


567.  What  is  a  "  hot  blast  »  * 

The  hot  blast  is  one  of  the  important  im- 
provements of  modern  iron-making,  by 
which  a  great  economy  of  fuel  is  effected.  A 
great  variety  of  ovens  for  heating  the  furnace 
blast  have  been  invented,  but  their  essential 
principle  is  the  same.  It  consists  in  passing 
the  air  through  tubes  or  passages  of  iron  or 
fire-clay  that  are  heated  by  a  flame  or  hot  air 
surrounding  them.  The  heat  is  usually  ob- 
tained by  utilizing  the  waste  inflammable 
gases  that  formerly  blazed  away  from  the  top 
of  the  blast  furnace. 

568.  How  do  we  obtain  ordinary  malleable 
iron  from  pig-iron  ? 

In  order  to  obtain  ordinary  malleable  iron 
from  pig-iron,  we  remove  the  bulk  of  the  im- 
purities contained  in  the  pig  by  a  process 
known  as  "  puddling,'7  and  hammering  or 
squeezing. 

569.  How  did  the  old  iron  masters  accomplish 
this  ? 

The  old  iron  masters  simply  melted  the 
crude  iron  in  a  refining  furnace  or  "finery," 

198 


Coal  Catechism 


and  then  subjected  it  to  the  action  of  a  blast, 
which  sufficiently  oxidized  the  silicon  and 
carbon. 

570.  What  is  silicon? 

Silicon  is  a  non-metallic  chemical  element 
and  is  the  base  of  silex,  or  silica,  which  is 
one  of  the  principal  earths.  The  principal 
kinds  of  stone  of  which  silex  is  the  chief 
component  part  are  quartz,  sandstone  or 
freestone,  sand  flint,  rock  crystal,  granite, 
agate  and  many  precious  stones.  It  is  used 
for  forming  mortar,  porcelain,  and  is  melted 
to  form  glass. 

571.  Relate  some  of  the  earlier  attempts  to 
use  Anthracite  for  smelting  iron  in  the  United 
States  ? 

One  of  the  earliest  attempts  to  use  Anthra- 
cite for  smelting  iron  was  made  at  Mauch 
Chunk,  Pa.,  in  1819,  by  the  Lehigh  Coal  & 
Navigation  Co. ,  but  was  abandoned.  In  1825 
the  smelting  of  iron  by  either  Anthracite  or 
Bituminous  coal  or  coke  was  practically  un- 
known in  the  United  States.  In  three  years, 
from  1838  to  1841,  11  Anthracite  furnaces 
were  built  in  this  country. 
199 


Coal  Catechism 


572.  Where  were  they  located  ? 

The  11  Anthracite  furnaces  were  located  at 
Mauch  Chunk,  Phoenix ville,  Catasauqua, 
Danville,  and  Shamokin,  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  at  Stanhope,  in  New  Jersey. 

573.  What     was     the     capacity    of     these 
furnaces  ? 

The  total  annual  production  of  pig-iron 
from  the  11  Anthracite  furnaces  in  operation 
at  that  time  could  not  have  exceeded  20,000 
tons. 

574-  How  many  Anthracite  furnaces  are 
now  in  the  United  States  ? 

There  are  but  few  furnaces  using  Anthra- 
cite, even  in  connection  with  coke. 

575.  What  is  their  capacity  ? 

The  total  annual  production  of  pig-iron 
from  the  Anthracite  and  the  Anthracite-and- 
coke  furnaces  now  in  operation  is  about 
1,000,000  tons. 

576.  Relate  some  of  the  earlier  attempts  to 
use  Bituminous  coal  in  American  furnaces  ? 

The  first  Bituminous  furnace  built  in  the 
200 


Coal  Catechism 


United  States  was  at  Bear  Creek,  in  Arm- 
strong County,  Pa.  This  was  in  1819.  It 
was  not  successful.  After  two  or  three  tons 
of  coke  iron  had  been  made,  the  furnace 
chilled.  It  was  then  put  in  operation  with 
charcoal.  In  1835  a  good  quality  of  iron 
was  made  in  the  Mary  Ann  furnace,  in  Hunt- 
ingdon County,  Pa.,  with  coke  made  from 
Broad  Top  coal.  This  was  probably  the  first 
successful  effort  made  in  this  country  to  use 
Bituminous  coal  in  blast  furnaces. 

During  the  years  1835-36  blast  furnaces 
were  erected  at  Karthaus  and  Farrandsville, 
on  the  west  branch  of  the  Susquehanna 
River,  in  Pennsylvania,  for  the  manufacture 
of  iron  by  coke,  but  both  were  unsuccessful. 
In  1839  a  coke  furnace  was  in  operation  at 
Lonacouing,  in  Maryland,  making  10  tons  of 
pig-iron  daily,  and  burning  the  coke  from  50 
tons  of  coal.  Near  Frostburg,  in  Maryland, 
were  two  large  furnaces  on  the  Welsh  plan 
for  using  coke  or  Bituminous  coal. 

577.  What  encouragement  was  offered  Amer- 
ican iron  workers  ? 

In  1835  the  Franklin  Institute,  of  Phila- 
201 


Coal  Catechism 


delphia,  offered  a  gold  medal  to  the  person 
who  manufactured  in  the  United  States  the 
greatest  quantity  of  iron  from  the  ore  during 
that  year,  using  no  other  fuel  than  Bitumi- 
nous coal  or  coke,  the  quantity  to  be  not  less 
than  20  tons.  In  1836  the  Pennsylvania 
Legislature  passed  an  act  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  manufacture  of  iron  by  mineral 
fuel. 

578.  Did  these  efforts  exert  an  appreciable 
influence  on  the  manufacture  of  iron  ? 

Scarcely  any.  Many  experiments  were 
made  with  coke  and  Bituminous  coal  for  blast- 
furnace use,  but  they  were  generally  attended 
with  loss.  In  1849  there  was  not  one  coke 
furnace  in  blast  in  the  United  States. 

579.  When  did  the  results  indicate  the  suc- 
cessful use  of  coke  in  American  furnaces  ? 

In  1856  there  were  21  blast  furnaces  in 
Pennsylvania  and  3  in  Maryland,  which  were 
using  coke,  or  were  adapted  to  its  use,  and 
their  total  production  in  that  year  was  over 
44,000  tons  of  pig-iron.  After  1856  the  use 
of  this  fuel  in  the  blast  furnaces  increased  in 
Pennsylvania  and  was  extended  to  other 
202 


Coal  Catechism 


States,  but  it  was  not  until  after  1865  that  its 
use  for  this  purpose  increased  rapidly, 
amounting  during  that  year  to  100, 000  tons, 
in  1880  to  over  2,000,000  tons,  and  in  1890 
to  over  10,000,000  tons. 

580.  How  many  Bituminous  and  coke  fur- 
naces are  now  in  the  United  States  ? 

A  recent  table  showed  247  blast  furnaces 
in  this  country  using  Bituminous  coal  and 
coke. 

581.  Where  were  they  located  $ 

Of  the  Bituminous  and  coke  furnaces  in 
the  United  States,  78  were  in  Pennsylvania, 
47  in  Ohio,  37  in  Alabama,  23  in  Virginia, 
17  in  Illinois,  12  in  Tennessee,  6  in  Kentucky, 
5  in  Maryland,  4  each  in  West  Virginia  and 
Wisconsin,  3  each  in  New  York,  Missouri, 
and  Colorado,  2  each  in  North  Carolina  and 
Georgia,  and  one  in  Minnesota. 

582.  What  is  their  combined  capacity  ? 
The  total   annual  production  of  pig-iron 

from  the  Bituminous  furnaces  now  in  opera- 
tion is  over  18,000,000  tons. 


203 


CHAPTER  EIGHTEEN 

GAS 

688.    What  is  gas  ? 

Gas  is  a  term  we  apply  to  all  aeriform,  in- 
visible, elastic  fluids.  The  air  we  breathe  is 
composed  of  two  gases,  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 
The  term  is  generally  used  to  describe  a  mix- 
ture of  particular  gases  for  illuminating  pur- 
poses. 

584-   How  is  gas  produced  ? 

Gas  is  sometimes  produced  naturally,  as 
those  gases  issuing  from  decayed  vegetable 
or  animal  matter,  or  those  issuing  from  vol- 
canoes and  the  atmosphere  ;  others  are  pro- 
duced by  chemical  manipulation,  as  in  the 
process  called  destructive  distillation. 

585.    What  is  destructive  distillation  ? 

Destructive  distillation  is  the  process  of 
heating  an  organic  compound  in  a  closed 
vessel,  without  access  of  air,  and  collecting 
the  products. 


Coal  Catechism 


586.  What  substances  will  produce  illumi- 
nating gas  by  the  process  of  destructive  distilla- 
tion 1 

By  distilling  fats,  oils,  wood,  peats,  bones, 
resins,  wax,  tallow,  or  any  animal  or  vege- 
table substance,  gas  is  expelled  and  the  origi- 
nal nature  of  the  material  is  destroyed.  By 
submitting  coal  to  this  process,  gas,  such  as 
used  for  lighting,  is  produced. 

587.  Why   is  coal  almost  universally  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose  ? 

Coal  is  almost  universally  employed  for 
this  purpose  on  account  of  its  price,  the  fa- 
cility with  which  it  is  distilled,  and  the  quan- 
tity and  quality  of  the  coke  derived  therefrom 
after  the  gas  is  expelled.  Formerly  the  pro- 
duction of  gas  from  resins,  fats,  and  oils  was 
common,  but,  on  account  of  the  greater  cost 
of  the  gas  produced  as  compared  with  that 
obtained  from  coal,  such  processes  have  been 
abandoned. 

588.  Give    a  simple  demonstration  of   the 
manufacture  of  coal  gas  ? 

If  we  put  some  powdered  coal  into  the  bowl 
205 


Coal  Catechism 


of  a  common  clay  tobacco-pipe,  plaster  over 
the  opening  with  moistened  clay,  and  then 
insert  the  bowl  in  a  fire,  allowing  the  stem  to 
project  from  between  the  grate-bars,  we  will 
have  commenced  the  process  of  destructive 
distillation.  In  a  few  minutes  a  stream  of  gas 
will  issue  from  the  stem.  On  applying  a 
light  it  will  burn  with  a  bright  flame,  and  we 
have  made  coal  gas  on  a  small  scale. 

589.  How  is  it  made  on  a  large  scale  t 

In  a  gas-works  the  tobacco-pipe  bowl  is  re- 
placed by  large  cast-iron  or  earthen  vessels, 
called  retorts ;  these  are  embedded  in  ovens, 
and  exposed  to  the  action  of  a  furnace,  and 
so  kept  continually  red-hot;  they  are  par- 
tially filled  with  coal  and  hermetically  closed, 
when  the  heat  decomposes  the  coal  and  ex- 
pels the  gas,  which  passes  from  the  retorts 
through  several  vessels  for  condensing  the 
vapors  in  combination  and  extracting  im- 
purities. When  the  gas  is  purified  it  passes 
to  the  gasometer,  ready  for  distribution. 

590.  By  this  process  how  much  gas  can  be 
obtained  from  a  ton  of  gas  coal  ? 

In  this  way  a  ton  of  good  gas  coal  will  yielc} 
206 


Coal  Catechism 


about  10,000  cubic  feet  of  illuminating  gas  ; 
but  a  vast  improvement  on  this  process  is 
obtained  by  taking  the  coal  used  in  the  first 
operation,  which  has  now  become  coke,  heat- 
ing it  to  incandescence,  and  forcing  steam 
through  the  mass. 

591.  How  much    gas  would    thus    be   pro- 
duced ? 

By  this  means  about  30,000  more  feet  of 
gas  are  obtained  from  the  ton  of  coal,  not  in- 
cluding such  coal  as  is  used  for  the  fires  pro- 
ducing the  heat. 

592.  What  is  this  gas  called  ? 

The  gas  produced  by  this  process,  in  which 
steam  is  used,  is  called  water  gas,  since  it  is 
the  decomposition  of  the  water  that  releases 
the  hydrogen  forming  the  gas.  Carbon,  when 
highly  heated,  has  so  much  affinity  for  oxy- 
gen that  it  will  decompose  steam  in  order  to 
combine  with  the  oxygen  that  forms  a  part  of 
the  steam.  This  is  the  principle  that  makes 
water  gas  possible.  Either  Anthracite  coal 
or  coke  may  be  used  to  secure  the  necessary 
carbon. 

207 


Coal  Catechism 


593.  How  is  the  brilliancy  of  this  gas  in- 
creased ? 

A  vapor  made  from  crude  oil  is  commonly 
added  iu  small  quantities  to  give  greater  il- 
luminating power  to  water  gas. 

594-     What  is  gas  coal  ? 

All  Bituminous  coal  will  produce  gas,  but, 
generally  speaking,  the  gas  coals  of  the 
United  States  are  those  containing  from  30 
to  40  per  cent,  of  volatile  matters, — that  is, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen.  The  excess 
of  hydrogen  in  these  coals  renders  them  par- 
ticularly suitable  for  the  production  of  car- 
buretted  hydrogen,  or,  as  it  is  commonly 
called,  "gas."  Hence  the  term  now  com- 
monly used,  "gas  coals." 

595.  Who  first  used  coal  for  destructive  dis> 
tillation  ? 

Coal  was  first  submitted  to  destructive  dis- 
tillation by  a  German  named  Johann  Joachin 
Becher,  in  the  year  1680.  He  secured  a 
i  i  patent  for  a  new  way  of  making  pitch  and 
tarre  out  of  pit-coale  never  before  found  or 
used  by  any  other." 

208 


Coal  Catechism 


596.  When   was  illuminating  gas  first  ob- 
tained from  coal  ? 

Gas  was  first  obtained  from  coal  by  Dr. 
Hales  in  1726,  who,  filling  a  bladder  with  it, 
and  puncturing  a  small  hole  therein,  lighted 
the  issuing  gas.  This,  however,  was  merely 
a  scientific  experiment. 

597.  When  was  coal  gas  first  used  for  light- 
ing purposes? 

The  discoverer  of  the  practical  application 
of  coal  gas  for  lighting  purposes  was  Mur- 
dock,  a  Scotchman,  who  in  1792  first  lighted 
his  house  and  offices  with  it. 

598.  When  was  the  first  -gas  company  char- 
tered ? 

The  first  gas  company  in  the  world  for  the 
production  of  gas  as  an  article  of  commerce 
was  chartered  in  London  in  1813,  under  the 
title  of  "  The  Gaslight  &  Coke  Co.", 

599.  Was   the   introduction  of  coal  gas  at- 
tended with  any  difficulties  ? 

The  opposition  against  the  introduction  of 
coal  gas  was  violent  in  the  extreme.     Great 
men,  authors,  and  scientists  spoke  and  wrote 
209 


Coal  Catechism 


against  it.  Such  men  as  Napoleon,  Sir  Wal- 
ter Scott,  and  Sir  Humphry  Davy  thought 
the  scheme  of  lighting  dwellings  with  gas  a 
reckless  and  foolish  one,  and  it  took  great 
perseverance  and  courage  to  overcome  the 
existing  prejudice  against  its  use.  The  pub- 
lic, however,  soon  became  reconciled  to  it, 
and  in  1814  London  was  first  lighted  with  gas 
made  from  coal. 

600.  Was  water  gas  knoivn  in  those  days  ? 

Not  commercially,  but  a  gas  of  similar 
properties  was  obtained  by  causing  steam  to 
pass  through  a  tube  filled  with  red-hot  char- 
coal. 

601.  When  was  the  first  attempt  made  to  in- 
troduce gas  into  the  United  States  f 

The  first  attempt  to  introduce  gas  into  this 
country  was  made  at  Baltimore  in  1816.  The 
company  first  organized,  which  is  the  oldest 
in  this  country,  constructed  works  for  the 
manufacture  of  tar  gas,  but  was  unsuccessful, 
and  it  was  not  until  about  1821  that  gas  was 
successfully  introduced  in  Baltimore. 
210 


Coal  Catechism 


602.     What  other  attempts  were  made  ? 

Boston  next  introduced  it  in  1822,  and  con- 
tinues to  work  under  its  first  charter.  New 
York  followed,  commencing  operations  in 
1823,  but  did  not  get  into  successful  operation 
until  1827.  Philadelphia  introduced  coal  gas 
in  1835. 

608.  What  gas  coals  were  used  at  this  time  in 
the  United  States? 

Up  to  1842  the  Virginia  coals,  mined  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Eichmond,  and  im- 
ported English  coals  were  the  principal  gas 
coals  used  in  this  country,  and  until  1850 
constituted  the  chief  supply  to  the  gas-works 
of  Philadelphia  and  other  American  cities. 
About  six  years  later  the  gas  coals  of  west- 
ern Pennsylvania  began  to  be  used  in  Phila- 
delphia, to  the  practical  exclusion  of  both 
the  foreign  and  the  Virginia  coals. 

604'  Where  are  the  principal  beds  of  gas 
coal  in  the  United  States  ? 

The    principal    beds    of  gas  coal  in    the 
United  States  are  in  the  country  adjacent  to 
Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  southeasterly  across  the 
line  in  West  Virginia. 
211 


Coal  Catechism 


605.  When  were  these  coals  first  used  for 
gas- making  ? 

The  Pittsburg  gas  coals  were  first  brought 
to  market  over  the  lines  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  about  1856.  These  were  followed 
later  by  the  shipments  of  Youghiogheny  gas 
coals  and  West  Virginia  gas  coals  eastward 
over  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad  to  tide- 
water, and  thence  by  vessels  to  the  various 
coast  cities. 

606.  Did  these  first  attempts  at  gas-making 
with  American  coals  meet  with  any  opposition  ? 

The  prejudice  then  existing  against  these 
coals  was  so  formidable  that  it  seemed  im- 
possible to  overcome.  The  famous  Newcastle 
coals  of  England  and  the  Pictou  Provincial 
coals  were  considered  by  gas  experts  to  be 
the  only  coals  suitable  for  gas-making,  and  it 
was  only  after  repeated  trials  and  experi- 
ments that  the  American  product  was  recog- 
nized as  equal  in  every  way  to  the  best  Eng- 
lish coals,  and  superior  to  the  Provincial. 
To-day  the  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia 
gas  coals  are  the  standards  of  excellence  as 
gas  producers  of  the  world. 
212 


Coal  Catechism 


607.  What  is  cannel  coal  ? 

Cannel  coal  is  supposed  to  be  the  product 
of  vegetable  matter, — as  other  coals, — but 
of  fine  particles  of  vegetation  mixed  with 
carbon  and  deposited  in  small  lakes  or  la- 
goons. It  generally  occurs  in  "  pockets," 
and  yields  a  very  high  percentage  of  volatile 
matter,  and  also  ash.  It  is  frequently  used 
in  gas-making  as  an  enricher. 

608.  In   the   distillation   of   gas   coal,  what 
component  parts  are  collected  ? 

The  so-called  Bituminous  part  is  melted  out 
in  the  form  of  tar.  There  is  disengaged  at 
the  same  time  a  large  quantity  of  aqueous 
fluid, contaminated  with  apportion  of  oil  and 
various  ammoniacal  salts.  A  large  quantity 
of  carburetted  hydrogen  and  other  inflamma- 
ble gases  make  their  appearance,  and  the  fixed 
base  of  the  coal  remains  behind  in  the  retorts 
in  the  form  of  a  carbonaceous  substance 
called  coke. 

609.  How  much  coke  remains  from  a  ton  of 
distilled  gas  coal  f 

The   amount  varies  with  different  coals, 
ranging  from  1,500  to  1,700  pounds  for  each 
gross  ton  of  coal  used. 
213 


CHAPTEE  NINETEEN 

COKE 

610.  What  is  charcoal  ? 

Charcoal  is  coal  made  by  charring  wood. 
Formerly  charcoal  was  the  name  for  charred 
sea-coal  or  mineral  coal,  and  the  word  is 
popularly  used  for  the  carbonaceous  residue 
of  vegetable,  animal  or  mineral  substances 
when  they  have  undergone  smothered  com- 
bustion. 

611.  What   is   meant   by   u  smothered  com- 
bustion "  ? 

Wood  consists  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  the  last  two  being  in  the  proportion 
to  form  water.  When  wood  is  heated  in  the 
open  air  it  burns  completely  away,  with  the 
exception  of  a  small  white  ash  j  but  if  the 
supply  of  air  be  limited,  then  the  combustion 
is  "  smothered,"  and  only  the  more  volatile 
matters  burn  away,  while  most  of  the  carbon 
remains  in  the  form  of  wood-charcoal. 


Coal  Catechism 


612.  Supposing  that  this  process  be  applied 
to  Bituminous  coal,  what  would  be  the  result? 

Bituminous  coal  consists  also  of  carbon, 
hydrogen  and  oxygen.  When  it  is  heated 
in  the  open  air  it  burns  away,  leaving  but  a 
small  quantity  of  ash ;  but  if  we  limit  the 
amount  of  air,  as  in  a  coke  oven,  during  com- 
bustion, then  only  the  volatile  gases  are  con- 
sumed, while  a  large  proportion  of  the  carbon 
remains  in  the  form  of  coke. 

613.  What,  then,  is  coke  ? 

Coke  is  a  form  of  fuel  obtained  by  the 
heating  of  Bituminous  coal  in  confined 
spaces,  whereby  its  more  volatile  constituents 
are  consumed  or  burned  away. 

614.  How  is  the  process  of  coking  in  mounds 
conducted  ? 

Coking  is  done  either  in  heaps,  or  mounds, 
or  in  coke  ovens.  If  done  in  mounds,  the 
coal  is  piled  up  in  round  stacks  around  a 
wide  open  chimney  or  column,  the  lumps  in 
the  centre,  and  the  slack  or  fine  coal  outside, 
the  whole  being  covered  with  wet  coke  dust, 
except  at  certain  air-holes.  The  mound  is 
ignited  at  the  top,  and  burns  gradually  down 
215 


Coal  Catechism 


and  outward,  giving  off  at  first  much  smoke 
and  vapor.  When  the  fire  ceases  to  be 
smoky,  the  process  of  coking  is  concluded, 
all  openings  are  covered  over  to  exclude  air 
and  extinguish  combustion,  and  the  cooling 
of  the  mound  is  done  by  drenching  it  with 
water ;  these  mounds  used  to  be  called 
"  fires." 

615.  How  does  this  differ  from  the  process 
of  making  coke  in  ovens  ? 

The  principle  of  making  coke  in  coke 
ovens  is  the  same,  but  the  process  is  much 
quicker  and  more  economical,  and  the  result- 
ing coke  is  better  in  quality  than  that  made 
in  mounds. 

616.  When  was  the  process  of  coke-making 
first  known  ? 

The  process  of  coke-making  is  very  old. 
As  early  as  2, 000  years  ago  coke  was  an  ar- 
ticle of  commerce  in  the  Chinese  province  of 
Hunan. 

617.  What   is  known   of   early   efforts    in 
coking  coal  ? 

A.  patent  was  issued  as  early  as  1557,  in 
216 


Coal  Catechism 


Germany,  for  a  process  that  was  called  the 
1 1  desulphurizing  of  coal. ' J  In  1590  a  license 
was  issued  for  cleaning  coal  and  freeing  it 
from  its  disagreeable  smell,  and  further 
patents  followed  in  1620  and  1627  for  smelt- 
ing iron  with  coke,  and  rendering  coal  as 
useful  and  agreeable  as  charcoal  for  domestic 
purposes.  Again,  a  further  patent  was  issued 
in  1633  to  several  parties  for  "  charking " 
coal  and  smelting  iron. 

618.  What  is  meant  by  "  charking  "  ? 

The  verb  "  chark  "  means  "to  burn  to  a 
black  cinder, "  whereas  the  meaning  of 
"char"  was  defined,  "to  burn  wood  to 
a  black  cinder."  Coal  thus  prepared  was 
called  "coak,"  and  wood  so  heated  was 
called  "charcoal." 

619.  When  was  coke  first  made  in  ovens  ? 
In  1769  the  fact  was  announced  by  one  of 

the  technical  writers  that  coke  was  made  in 
England,  "not  only  in  piles,  but  in  closed 
furnaces."  A  short  time  afterward  the  iron 
masters  of  Liege  adopted  with  success  that 
system  of  coking.  At  the  same  time  coking 
217 


Coal  Catechism 


ID  ovens  was  carried  on  in  the  villages  around 
London,  the  coke  being  prepared  for  the  use 
of  malsters  and  for  other  purposes.  In  1781 
the  application  of  coke  for  the  smelting  of 
iron  had  become  general  in  England,  and 
coke  ovens  were  in  operation  at  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne  and  at  Cambridge. 


What  are  the  constituent  parts  of  coke  ? 
The  constituent  parts  of  coke  are  princi- 
pally carbon  and  ash,  the  latter  being  the  in- 
organic matter  of  the  coal.  An  analysis  of 
coke  would  show  about  90  per  cent,  of  fixed 
carbon  and  the  balance  of  ash. 

621.  What  is  the  position  of  coke  as  a  fuel  ? 
The  excess  of  carbon  in  coke  ranks  it  as 

capable  of  great  heating  power,  and  the  small 
amount  of  combustible  gases  renders  it  slow 
to  ignite  and  free  from  smoke  during  combus- 
tion. 

622.  What  are  the  impurities  in  coke  f 
The  impurities  in  coke  are  the  sulphur  and 

phosphorus  which  it  may  contain, 
218 


Coal  Catechism 


623.   Describe    the    general  appearance   of 

coke? 

In  external  appearance  coke  may  be  light 
gray  and  bright,  or,  as  it  is  generally  termed, 
u  silvery,"  or  of  a  metallic  lustre,  or  it  may 
be  dull  and  black,  or  iridescent.  It  is  gen- 
erally rough-surfaced,  but  sometimes,  espe- 
cially that  portion  of  a  charge  near  oven  walls, 
is  smooth  and  glossy,  like  polished  graphite. 
Sometimes  hair-like  threads  are  found  cling- 
ing to  the  larger  lumps. 


6@4-    Describe  the  physical  structure  of  coke  ? 

In  its  physical  structure  coke  may  be 
porous  and  light,  or  compact,  dense,  and 
heavy.  It  may  be  hard  and  capable  of  sus- 
taining a  high  crushing  and  compressive 
strain  or  load,  or  it  may  be  soft  and  brittle, 
with  a  low  crushing  point  and  compressive 
strength.  Its  " ring"  or  sound  when  struck 
is  in  some  samples  almost  metallic,  and  in 
others  it  is  dull  and  heavy.  Its  degree  of 
combustibility  and  ease  of  ignition,  also,  are 
variable. 

219 


Coal  Catechism 


625.  What  do  we  mean  by  "  dense  "  and 
"  7iard  "  coke  ? 

All  coke  is  more  or  less  cellular  in  its 
structure.  The  less  the  cell  space  the  denser 
the  coke,  the  greater  the  cell  space  the  more 
porous — that  is,  "  dense"  and  "porous"  are 
opposite  conditions.  "Hard"  is  a  term 
properly  applied  to  the  cell  walls  of  the  coke, 
and  coke  is  "hard"  or  "soft"  as  the  cell 
walls  are  hard  or  soft.  Coke  may  therefore 
be  dense  and  not  hard — that  is,  its  cell  space 
may  be  small  and  the  cell  walls  weak  j  or  it 
may  be  porous  and  hard — that  is,  its  cell 
space  may  be  large  and  the  cell  walls  hard 
and  strong. 

626.  What  is  the  typical  coke  for  blast-fur- 
nace use  f 

Physically  the  typical  coke  for  blast-fur- 
nace use  should  be  bright,  silvery,  hard  and 
porous,  with  a  metallic  ring. 

627.  Does  a  chemical  analysis  indicate  the 
value  of  coke  ? 

Not  always.     An  analysis  of   coke  may 
show  a  very  high  percentage  of  carbon  and 
very  low  of  ash  and  impurities ;  but  if  the 
220 


Coal  Catechism 


coke  is  soft  and  brittle  its  value  as  a  furnace 
fuel  is  very  small ;  whereas  a  coke  lower  in 
carbon  and  higher  in  ash,  if  it  is  physically 
a  hard  coke,  or  one  with  hard  cell  walls, 
would  be  much  superior  to  the  one  in  which 
the  cell  walls  are  brittle  and  weak. 

628.  When  was  coke  first  made  in  the  United 
State*  t 

The  manufacture  of  coke  in  the  United 
States  is  of  very  recent  date,  the  census  of 
1850  showing  a  total  amount  in  value  of  only 
$15,000.  Prior  to  this  small  quantities  of 
coke  were  made  for  smelting  iron  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

629.  Relate  the  process  of  coke-making  in  the 
United  States  * 

In  1870  the  manufacture  of  coke  in  Ohio 
was  begun,  and  in  1880  coke  was  manufac- 
tured in  Alabama,  Colorado,  Georgia,  Illi- 
nois, Indiana,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Tennessee 
and  West  Virginia,  nine  States  in  all. 

630.  From  what  coal  seams  is  most  of  the  coal 
taken  for  coking  in  the  United  States  ? 

By  far  the  largest  part  of  the  coal  used  for 
221 


Coal  Catechism 


coking  in  the  United  States  comes  from  three 
coal  seams — the  Pittsburg  seam  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  Pottsville  conglomerate  in  the  New 
Eiver  and  Flat  Top  districts  of  Virginia  and 
West  Virginia,  and  the  Pratt  seam  of  Ala- 
bama. 

631.  From  what  coal  is   ConnellsviUe  coke 
made  ? 

The  coal  used  in  making  ConnellsviUe  coke 
is  from  the  Pittsburg  seam,  locally  known  as 
the  u  ConnellsviUe  "  seam.  The  run-of-mine 
coal  is  put  directly  into  the  ovens,  of  the  form 
known  as  the  "  bee-hive"  pattern,  without 
any  preparation  or  screening,  and  is  con- 
verted into  coke. 

632.  Describe  the  process   of  charging  the 
coal  in  bee-hive  ovens  ? 

The  coal  is  brought  to  the  ovens  in  iron 
cars  called  "larries,"  which  discharge  their 
contents  through  a  circular  opening  in  the 
tops  of  the  ovens  by  means  of  chutes  attached 
to  the  larries.  This  is  called  " charging" 
the  ovens,  and  a  charge  is  about  six  tons  of 
coal.  A  coke  oven  has  two  openings — the 
222 


Coal  Catechism 


circular  opening  in  the  top  or  crown,  and 
another  in  the  side,  called  the  door.  After 
charging,  the  door  is  bricked  up  and  plas- 
tered with  clay,  leaving  a  small  opening  at 
the  top  of  the  bricks. 

633.  How  is  combustion  first  produced  in  the 
ovens ? 

When  coke  ovens  are  first  "lighted,"  fires 
are  made  in  them  of  wood,  and  afterward  of 
coal  or  coke.  These  fires  are  merely  pre- 
liminary, and  are  made  to  heat  the  ovens. 
When  they  have  been  sufficiently  heated  the 
fires  are  drawn  and  the  ovens  carefully 
cleaned  of  ashes.  The  charges  of  coking 
coal  are  now  put  in  the  "ovens,  and  soon 
ignite  from  the  heat  retained  from  the  pre- 
vious fires,  the  distillation  of  gases  begins, 
and  these  gases  pass  off  through  the  holes  in 
the  tops  of  the  ovens. 

634.  How  is  the  coke  drawn  from  the  ovens  ? 
The  coal  is  allowed  to  burn  in  the  ovens 

for  48  hours,  at  the  end  of  which  time  it  is 
thoroughly  coked ;  this  is  ascertained  by 
looking  into  the  oven  over  the  top  of  the 
door.  A  man  then  tears  away  the  brick  door 
223 


Coal  Catechism 


and,  inserting  the  nozzle  of  a  hose,  drenches 
the  heated  mass  with  water  until  it  is 
quenched.  The  coke  is  then  allowed  to 
stand  until  the  water  is  all  driven  off  as 
vapor,  after  which  it  is  drawn  out  on  the 
ground  by  laborers  using  long  iron  scrapers. 
From  the  ground  the  coke  is  forked  into  the 
railroad  cars  and  shipped  to  its  destination. 

685.  How  is  combustion  in  the  ovens  con- 
tinued ? 

The  heat  retained  in  an  oven  from  the  pre- 
vious charge,  together  with  that  obtained 
from  the  alternate  ovens  which  are  in  blast — 
the  coke  being  drawn  from  every  other  oven 
—is  sufficient  to  continue  combustion  after 
each  charge  is  made. 

636.  What  method  is  pursued  in  charging 
coke  ovens  ? 

An  oven  charged,  say  on  Monday,  would 
be  ready  to  draw  on  Wednesday;  an  oven 
charged  on  Tuesday  would  be  drawn  on 
Thursday,  etc. 

637.  What  is  meant  by  "  72-hour  "  coke  ? 
Owing  to  the  suspension  of  labor  on  Sun- 

224 


Coal  Catechism 


day,  an  oven  charged  on  Friday  must  neces- 
sarily go  over  to  Monday,  so  that  all  charges 
made  on  Friday  and  drawn  on  Monday  must 
be  in  the  ovens  72  hours,  and  the  coke  result- 
ing is  called  72-hour  coke. 

638.  Is  "72-hour"   coke   better   than   "48- 
hour  "  coke  f 

All  other  conditions  being  equal,  72-hour 
coke  does  not  differ  from  48-hour  coke,  either 
in  analysis  or  physical  structure.  A  Friday 
oven  is  always  charged  with  an  increased 
amount  of  coal,  which  necessitates  longer 
burning ;  the  resultant  coke  is  therefore  no 
better  than  the  coke  from  the  smaller  charges 
of  the  other  days  in  the  week.  When  the 
gases  have  been  expelled  from  the  coal  the 
ovens  are  sealed,  with  a  lid  over  the  top 
opening,  and  no  additional  burning  will  im- 
prove the  quality  of  the  coke. 

639.  How  does  the  charge  of  coal  burn  in  a 
coke  oven  ? 

The  charge  of  coal  begins  to  burn  and  coke 
from  the  top  downward,  as  in  charcoal  or 
coke  piles  in  the  open  air.     Should  sufficient 
225 


Coal  Catechism 


air  be  admitted  to  the  ovens,  the  coal  would 
be  consumed  to  ashes. 

640.  What  are  "  black  ends  "  in  coke  ? 
Black  ends  are  caused  by  cold  oven  floors 

or  insufficient  burning,  whereby  the  process 
of  coking  is  arrested  before  that  part  of  the 
coal  is  converted  which  rests  upon  the  floor 
of  the  oven.  Black  ends  should  not  be  con- 
fused with  " smoked  ends,"  the  latter  being 
simply  a  discoloration  of  the  coke  with 
smoke,  which  in  no  way  impairs  its  quality. 

641.  What  is  "  crushed  "  coke  ? 

Coke  which  is  broken  and  screened  into 
various  sizes,  like  Anthracite  coal,  for  do- 
mestic use  is  called  crushed  coke.  One  ton 
of  coke  so  prepared  is  equal  in  bulk  to  about 
two  tons  of  Anthracite.  Owing  to  its  free- 
dom from  gas  and  clinkers,  together  with  its 
large  percentage  of  heat  units,  crushed  coke 
is  a  typical  domestic  fuel. 

642  •  What  is  the  difference  between  "fur- 
nace "  and  "foundry  "  coke  ? 

There  is  no  essential  difference,  both  com- 
ing from  the  same  ovens,  and  frequently  from 
220 


Coal  Catechism 


the  same  charges.  Operators,  however, 
make  a  difference  in  the  price  for  their 
trouble  and  labor  in  selecting  coke  for 
foundry  use,  sometimes  having  it  hand-picked 
for  that  purpose. 

643.  What  is  the  annual  coke  production  of 
the  United  States  ? 

At  present  coke  is  made  in  25  States  of  the 
Union  at  the  rate  of  about  26, 000, 000  net 
tons  annually  from  about  80,000  ovens. 


227 


CHAPTEE  TWENTY 

BY-PRODUCTS 

644.  What  is  meant  by  the  word  u  by-prod- 
uct "  ?       , 

A  by-product  is  a  secondary  or  additional 
product — something  produced,  as  in  a  man- 
ufacturing process,  in  addition  to  the  prin- 
cipal product. 

645.  What  are  the  by-products  of  coke  ? 

In  the  coking  process  the  by-products 
which  are  frequently  collected  and  utilized 
are  the  gas,  tar  and  ammonia. 

646.  How  are  these  by-products  collected  ? 
These  by-products  are  collected  by  burning 

the  coal  in  a  peculiar  kind  of  coke  oven 
other  than  the  bee-hive  pattern.  These 
special  ovens  are  called  u  flue  ovens." 

647.  What  is  the  principle  of  a  flue  oven  ? 
The  essential  principle  of  a  flue  or  retort 

oven  is  the  coking  of  the  coal  in  retorts  or 
air-tight  chambers,  as  in  a  gas  works.  The 


Coal  Catechism 


coal  in  the  ordinary  bee-hive  oven  is  burned 
from  the  inside,  while  that  in  a  flue  oven  is 
burned  from  gas  on  the  outside. 

648.  Describe  the  construction  of  flue  ovens  ? 

The  Semet-Solvay  flue  ovens  are  con- 
structed in  a  rectangular  form,  the  retorts  be- 
ing above  the  foundations  of  the  ovens. 
The  ovens  are  charged  at  the  top  by  larries, 
and  the  coal  is  burned  24  hours,  or  one-half 
the  time  required  by  the  common  bee-hive 
ovens.  On  each  side  of  the  ovens  are  three 
horizontal  flues  ruoning  the  entire  length 
and  containing  gas,  which  heats  the  ovens. 
The  flues  are  made  of  tile  and  are  not  more 
than  two  inches  thick,  so  "that  the  heat  can 
easily  be  conveyed  through. 

649.  How  are  the  ovens  operated  ? 

The  gas  in  the  horizontal  flues  that  are 
used  to  heat  the  ovens  is  taken  from  the  other 
ovens  that  have  been  burned  ;  one  oven  is 
drawn  every  two  hours,  and  the  waste  heat 
is  saved  in  boilers  which  are  placed  between 
two  rows  of  ovens.  The  gas  from  the  ovens 
goes  to  the  by-product  house,  and  is  there 
washed  and  scrubbed  and  the  by-products 
229 


Coal  Catechism 


obtained.  In  every  ton  of  coal  there  is  esti- 
mated to  be  10,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  ;  of  this 
amount  7,000  feet  are  used  for  heating  the 
ovens  and  the  remainder  is  saved  and  used 
for  fuel  or  illuminating  purposes. 

650.  How  is  the  coke  drawn  from  the  ovens  f 
These  ovens  can  be  opened  at  both  ends, 

and  the  coke  pushed  out  by  an  engine  run- 
ning along  the  end  of  the  ovens.  The  coke 
thus  forced  out  is  drenched  with  water  and 
cooled  as  in  the  bee-hive  process. 

651.  How  does  the  cost  of  a  flue  oven  com- 
pare with  a  bee-hive  ? 

The  cost  of  the  flue  oven  is  three  or  four 
times  that  of  the  bee-hive  oven,  but  it  is 
claimed  that  the  increased  yield  of  retort 
coke  as  compared  with  oven  coke,  together 
with  the  value  of  the  by-products  obtained, 
compensates  for  the  difference. 

652.  What  is  known  of  this  system  of  coke 
making  in  the  United  States  ? 

Comparatively  little,  as    its  introduction 
into  this  country  is  of  recent  date.     The  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  however,  has  practically 
230 


Coal  Catechism 


abandoned  the  bee-hive  ovens.  In  Germany, 
Belgium  and  France  there  are  only  a  few  is- 
olated plants  of  bee-hive  ovens  in  operation. 
Such,  however,  is  not  the  case  in  England, 
where  the  bee-hive  ovens,  as  in  this  country, 
are  in  general  use. 

653.  In  the  production  of  illuminating  gas, 
what  by-products  are  obtained  f 

In  making  illuminating  gas  from  coal  we 
obtain  as  by-products  ammoniacal  liquor,  tar 
and  coke. 

664.    What  use  can  be  made  of  these  ? 

The  coke  can  be  used  as  fuel,  while  the  tar 
and  ammoniacal  liquor  can  by  chemical  de- 
composition be  used  in  a  great  variety  of 
processes  of  great  value  and  utility. 

655.  How  much  tar  can  be  obtained  from  a 
ton  of  coal  ? 

From  a  ton  of  coal  we  get  about  110  to  120 
pounds  of  tar. 

656.  How  much   watery  liquor  is  thus  ob- 
tained ? 

From  a  ton  of  coal  we  get  about  20  to  25 
gallons  of  watery  liquor. 
231 


Coal  Catechism 


657.  What  is  obtained  from  the  tar  ? 

Tar  furnishes  the  raw  material  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  multitude  of  valuable  substances 
— coloring  matters  better  than  natural  dyes  ; 
explosives,  such  as  picric  acid  ;  perfumes  and 
flavoring  materials,  like  bitter  almond-oil  and 
vanillin  ;  sweetening  matter,  like  saccharin  ; 
disinfectants,  like  carbolic  acid ;  medicines 
rivaling  the  natural  alkaloids ;  and  devel- 
opers for  photographers,  such  as  hydro- 
quinone  and  eikonogen. 

658.  What  is  paraffin  ? 

Paraffin  is  a  wax-like  substance  obtained 
by  distillation  from  highly -Bituminous  cannel 
coal.  It  has  for  years  been  the  principal  ma- 
terial employed  in  the  manufacture  of  candles 
in  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  having  for 
that  purpose  to  a  large  extent  superseded  the 
use  of  beeswax,  spermaceti,  stearic  acid  and 
tallow.  It  is  also  used  in  many  branches  of 
the  arts  and  manufactures. 

659.  How  is  paraffin  produced  ? 

The  coal  or  Bituminous  shale,  when  taken 
from  the  mines,  is  broken  into  small  pieces 
232 


Coal  Catechism 


and  put  into  retorts.  In  the  retorts  the  first 
chemical  process — destructive  distillation — 
takes  place.  The  coal,  according  to  quality, 
yields  from  20  to  40  gallons  of  crude  oil  per 
ton,  and  over  60  gallons  of  ammonia  water, 
from  which  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  obtained. 
The  paraffin  is  obtained  by  pressing  and  re- 
frigeration of  the  oil.  It  is  afterward  refined 
and  then  filtered  through  cloth  and  filter- 
paper  and  run  into  pans  to  solidify  into 
cakes  of  convenient  size  for  the  candle 
maker. 

660.  Where  is  paraffin  chiefly  produced  ? 
In  Scotland,  where  some  15  companies  with 

an  aggregate  capital  of  about  $12,000,000  are 
engaged  in  this  industry  alone.  These  com- 
panies use  about  2,000,000  tons  of  coal  per 
annum,  producing  about  60,000,000  gallons 
of  crude  oil. 

661.  Is  paraffin  from  coal  manufactured  in 
the  United  States  ? 

The  industry  was  started  here,  but  the  dis- 
covery of  petroleum — essentially  the  same 
thing  as  paraffin  oil — rendered  the  business 
unprofitable. 

233 


Coal  Catechism 


662.  What  is  pitch? 

Pitch  is  a  thick,  black,  sticky  substance 
obtained  by  boiling  down  tar. 

663.  How  is  it  utilized  ? 

When  mixed  with  coal  dust,  pitch  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  briquettes  for  artificial 
fuel.  Pitch  is  also  used  in  all  the  applica- 
tions of  asphalt  for  paving,  roofing  and 
felting. 

664.  How  is  sulphate  of  ammonia,  obtained 
from  the  watery  liquor  in  coal,  utilized  ? 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  is  extensively  used  in 
various  chemical  operations,  and  is  also  in 
good  demand  as  a  fertilizer.  It  adds  nitro- 
gen to  the  soil,  and  is  an  excellent  agent  for 
stimulating  all  plant  growth. 

665.  Are  tar  and  ammonia  recovered  from 
other  than  gas  works  f 

For  many  years  tar  and  ammonia  have 
been  recovered  from  the  coal  gases  which 
burned  away  and  were  wasted  at  the  tops  of 
the  blast  furnaces.  This  is  notably  the  case 
in  Scotland,  where  nearly  all  the  blast  fur- 
234 


Coal  Catechism 


naces    are    equipped   to    utilize   the  waste 
ises : — 
1st.     Under  the  boilers  of  the  blowing  en- 


2d.     In  the  air-stoves  for  heating  the  blast. 

3d.  In  the  recovery  plant  for  tar  and  am- 
monia. 

666.   How  will  coal  be  used  in  the  future  ? 

The  time  is  not  far  distant  when  we  will 
abandon  the  clumsy,  inefficient  contrivances 
for  burning  coal  in  our  houses  and  work- 
shops. The  annoyance  of  black  coal  dust, 
sooty  smoke,  and  grimy  ashes  will  be  replaced 
by  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  fuel  gas 
of  high  grade  and  healthful  properties. 
Central  plants  will  deliver  this  cleanly  and 
convenient  product  for  all  purposes  of 
warmth  and  power. 

The  impurities  and  inorganic  matter  of 
coal  will  first  be  removed,  the  noxious  vapors 
scrubbed  and  purified.  Then,  hand  in  hand 
with  its  beautiful  sister  Electricity,  we  will 
introduce  into  our  homes  Gas,  the  pure  spirit 
of  coal. 


235 


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